What the next president inherits: ten years of figures (2017‑2027)
Emmanuel Macron’s two terms in official figures. For each of the 78 indicators: the starting value (2016, the last full year before the May 2017 election), the latest published value, the change between the two and, where it exists, the same series for the euro area or the European Union. Data as of 13 October 2026.
Reading these figures
These series describe the state of the country. They do not say what share of each change is due to decisions taken since 2017, to earlier ones, to the economic situation or to other countries: the page asserts no cause that an official source does not establish, and in that case cites the source.
Each series comes from a public body (INSEE, Eurostat, Banque de France, Dares, DREES, DGFiP, SSMSI, Citepa, OECD, European Commission…), in its latest published version. National accounts are revised every year: a figure may change at the next release. Breaks in series are flagged under the indicator concerned. Method: see the method.
On the charts, the grey band covers 2020 and 2021. Dark line: France; grey line: the comparison.
9 indicators · Public debt: 98.2% → 115.7% of GDP, 2016 → 2025 (provisional)
General government accounts (State, local authorities, social security) as defined in national accounting. INSEE series are on a 2020 base: when it moved to the 2020 base on 31 May 2024, INSEE revised all years since 1949.
Public debt% of GDP
Start, 2016
98.2
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
115.7
Change
+17.5 points
Most recent: 119.0% of GDP (Q2 2026).
France
Euro area (20 countries, EA20)
8090100110120
2016France: 98.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 89.9% of GDP2017France: 98.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 87.5% of GDP2018France: 98.5% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 85.5% of GDP2019France: 98.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 83.6% of GDP2020France: 114.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 96.5% of GDP2021France: 112.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 93.8% of GDP2022France: 111.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 89.3% of GDP2023France: 109.5% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 86.9% of GDP2024France: 112.6% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 87.0% of GDP2025France: 115.7% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 87.8% of GDP
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries, EA20): 89.9% of GDP in 2016, 87.8% of GDP in 2025 (−2.1 points)
Consolidated gross debt of general government as defined by Maastricht, at 31 December, as a ratio of the year's GDP.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Dette des administrations publiques au sens de Maastricht par sous-secteur – Données annuelles de 1978 à 2025 (comptes nationaux annuels, base 2020) », 28 August 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries, EA20)).
2024 semi-final (sd), 2025 provisional (p). The first estimate of March 2026 gave 115.6% for end-2025; the May 2026 account and the August 2026 update give 115.7%. The quarterly ratio relates debt to the sum of GDP over the last four quarters (seasonally and working-day adjusted).
2016France: −3.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −1.5% of GDP2017France: −3.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −1.0% of GDP2018France: −2.3% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −0.4% of GDP2019France: −2.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −0.5% of GDP2020France: −8.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −7.0% of GDP2021France: −6.6% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −5.1% of GDP2022France: −4.7% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −3.4% of GDP2023France: −5.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −3.5% of GDP2024France: −5.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −3.0% of GDP2025France: −5.1% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): −2.9% of GDP
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries, EA20): −1.5% of GDP in 2016, −2.9% of GDP in 2025 (−1.4 points)
Net lending (+) or net borrowing (−) of general government as defined by Maastricht, as a ratio of GDP; a negative value corresponds to a deficit.
Reading this figure
The Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) puts the cost of the reductions in compulsory levies implemented from 2018 onwards at « plus de 60 Md€ » [“more than €60bn”] and writes that these reductions, « non compensées par des économies en dépenses, ont creusé le déficit de l'État et accru sa dette » [“not offset by spending savings, widened the State deficit and increased its debt”]. (Cour des comptes, « La situation et les perspectives des finances publiques, juillet 2024, p. 36 », 15 July 2024)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Capacité ou besoin de financement des administrations publiques au sens de Maastricht par sous-secteur (comptes nationaux annuels, base 2020) », 28 August 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries, EA20)).
In billions of euros (same file, Figure 1): −€84.0bn in 2016, −€151.6bn in 2025 (August 2026 update; €152.5bn in the May 2026 Insee Première). The 2025 ratio remains at −5.1% in both versions.
Consolidated gross debt of general government as defined by Maastricht, at 31 December, in billions of current euros.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Dette des administrations publiques au sens de Maastricht par sous-secteur – Données annuelles de 1978 à 2025 (comptes nationaux annuels, base 2020) », 28 August 2026.
File values rounded to one decimal place (e.g. 2,190.5246 → 2,190.5). End-2025: €3,460.1bn in the August 2026 update (and in the September 2026 quarterly series), compared with €3,460.5bn in the May 2026 Insee Première.
Interest paid by general government (national accounts transaction D41, consolidated between government units), in billions of current euros.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Dépenses et recettes des administrations publiques en 2025 – Tableau 3.201 « Dépenses et recettes des administrations publiques (S13) » (Insee Résultats, comptes nationaux annuels, base 2020) », 28 August 2026.
Series D41 (after correction for financial intermediation services indirectly measured, FISIM), same concept as the Eurostat indicator D41PAY. INSEE also discusses the series « hors correction Sifim » [“excluding FISIM correction”] (D41G, same table): €46.4bn in 2016, €64.7bn in 2025. Table 3.201 was updated on 28 August 2026; Eurostat (July 2026, earlier version) gives €66.6bn for 2025.
2016France: 1.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 2.1% of GDP2017France: 1.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 2.0% of GDP2018France: 1.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.8% of GDP2019France: 1.5% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.6% of GDP2020France: 1.3% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.5% of GDP2021France: 1.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.4% of GDP2022France: 1.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.7% of GDP2023France: 1.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.7% of GDP2024France: 2.0% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.9% of GDP2025France: 2.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 1.9% of GDP
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries, EA20): 2.1% of GDP in 2016, 1.9% of GDP in 2025 (−0.2 points)
Interest paid by general government (national accounts transaction D41, consolidated), as a ratio of GDP.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Principaux agrégats des administrations publiques, y compris recettes et dépenses », 21 July 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries, EA20)).
INSEE does not publish this ratio as a series; the France series comes from Eurostat (French transmission of May 2026, before the INSEE update of 28 August 2026). The Eurostat amounts match INSEE's (€42.4bn in 2016; €66.6bn in 2025 in the Eurostat version compared with €65.7bn in INSEE's August version).
2016France: 57.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 47.9% of GDP2017France: 57.7% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 47.4% of GDP2018France: 56.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 47.0% of GDP2019France: 55.3% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 47.0% of GDP2020France: 61.7% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 53.6% of GDP2021France: 59.5% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 52.0% of GDP2022France: 58.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 49.9% of GDP2023France: 56.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 49.3% of GDP2024France: 57.0% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 49.4% of GDP2025France: 57.3% of GDPEuro area (20 countries, EA20): 49.8% of GDP
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries, EA20): 47.9% of GDP in 2016, 49.8% of GDP in 2025 (+1.9 points)
Total expenditure of general government (State, other central government bodies, local government, social security), consolidated, as a ratio of GDP.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Le compte des administrations publiques en 2025 (Insee Première n° 2106), figure 2 « Dépenses et recettes publiques entre 1995 et 2025 » », 29 May 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries, EA20)).
Spending includes imputed items (imputed social contributions, refundable tax credits, output for own final use); excluding these items, INSEE publishes 52.8% in 2016 and 53.8% in 2025 (file on page 2381414). In billions of euros: €1,280.6bn in 2016, €1,714.1bn in 2025 (table 3.201, August 2026). In Eurostat, France is at 57.4% in 2016 and 57.2% in 2025.
201644.6% of GDP201745.3% of GDP201844.9% of GDP201944.0% of GDP202044.3% of GDP202144.2% of GDP202245.0% of GDP202343.2% of GDP202442.7% of GDP202543.6% of GDP
201620222025
Taxes and actual social contributions received by general government and European Union institutions, net of tax credits and excluding imputed social contributions, as a ratio of GDP.
Reading this figure
Tax expenditures (derogating tax reductions, credits and exemptions, known as « niches fiscales ») are not included in public spending. Their cost is put at €89.4bn for 2024 and estimated at €91.8bn for 2025 and €88.3bn for 2026, for 474 schemes in 2025. The Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) notes that the costing convention for VAT changed in the 2024 budget bill (PLF): under the old convention, the 2024 cost would be €103.1bn. (Ministère de l'Économie et des Finances (annexe au PLF 2026), « Évaluation des voies et moyens, tome II – Dépenses fiscales, PLF 2026, p. 13 », 1 October 2025)
The Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) puts at €62bn in 2023, i.e. 2.2 points of GDP, the impact of the tax and contribution cuts decided over the 2018-2023 period (corporate income tax, CVAE, housing tax, reductions in social contributions). According to the same source, the compulsory levies ratio was 45.3% of GDP in 2017, 45.0% in 2022 and 43.2% in 2023. (Cour des comptes, « La situation et les perspectives des finances publiques, juillet 2024, p. 35 », 15 July 2024)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Taux de prélèvements obligatoires rapportés au produit intérieur brut (chiffres-clés, comptes nationaux annuels, base 2020) », 28 August 2026.
The Eurostat definition used for the comparison differs from INSEE's (INSEE calculates its rate net of tax credits and excluding imputed contributions; Eurostat applies its own conventions): on this Eurostat definition, France is at 45.7% in 2016 and 43.5% in 2024 (same dataset, geo=FR), i.e. higher than the INSEE rate. The comparison with the euro area should be read on this France-Eurostat line, not on the INSEE series. Eurostat does not yet publish 2025 in this dataset.
2016France: 3.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.8% of GDP2017France: 3.8% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.8% of GDP2018France: 3.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.9% of GDP2019France: 4.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.0% of GDP2020France: 4.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.3% of GDP2021France: 4.1% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.2% of GDP2022France: 4.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.1% of GDP2023France: 4.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.3% of GDP2024France: 4.3% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.5% of GDP2025France: 4.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 3.6% of GDP
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 2.8% of GDP in 2016, 3.6% of GDP in 2025 (+0.8 points)
Gross fixed capital formation of general government (State, local authorities, social security), as a ratio of GDP.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Principaux agrégats des administrations publiques, y compris recettes et dépenses (gov_10a_main) », 21 July 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
Eurostat series used in order to have France and the euro area in the same vintage; INSEE publishes the same aggregate (table 3.201 of the national accounts) with possible rounding differences (3.9% for 2017 according to INSEE). Gross investment does not deduct the wear and tear of capital (consumption of fixed capital).
Euro area (20 countries): Eurostat, « gov_10a_main », published on 21 July 2026, series gov_10a_main (unit=PC_GDP, sector=S13, na_item=P51G, geo=EA20).
Amount of the research tax credit (research, innovation and collection components) generated by the expenditure declared by businesses in respect of a given year (claims), in current euros.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche (MESRE-DGRI), « Le crédit d'impôt recherche (CIR) en 2023 – données provisoires », 1 November 2025.
Values published in millions of euros, divided by 1,000. 2022 is « semi-définitif » [“semi-final”] and 2023 « provisoire » [“provisional”] according to the source. The claim (year of expenditure) differs from the annual budgetary cost of the tax expenditure (year of offset) published in the Voies et moyens annex: €7.80bn actual in 2024, €8.07bn forecast in 2025, €8.04bn in 2026. 29,720 companies filed claims in 2023.
What the markets, the credit rating agencies, the European institutions, the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) and the Haut Conseil des finances publiques (High Council of Public Finance), and public officials say about public debt. Dated facts and exact quotations, without comment.
Germany: 0.09% in 2016, 2.59% in 2025 (+2.50 points)
Italy: 1.49% in 2016, 3.59% in 2025 (+2.10 points)
Spain: 1.39% in 2016, 3.21% in 2025 (+1.82 points)
Greece: 8.36% in 2016, 3.37% in 2025 (−4.99 points)
Portugal: 3.17% in 2016, 3.08% in 2025 (−0.09 points)
Yield on government bonds with a maturity of around 10 years used for the Maastricht convergence criterion, annual average.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Critère de convergence de l'UEM - données annuelles », 25 February 2026; Eurostat (Germany); Eurostat (Italy); Eurostat (Spain); Eurostat (Greece); Eurostat (Portugal).
Annual values published by Eurostat (2025 published with five decimal places, earlier years with two). The “recent” data point is the September 2026 average of the monthly series irt_lt_mcby_m, the latest month published as at 13 October 2026.
Difference between France's long-term (10-year) interest rate and Germany's, Maastricht convergence criterion series, annual averages, in percentage points.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Critère de convergence de l'UEM - données annuelles », 25 February 2026.
Calculation: France value minus Germany value from series irt_lt_mcby_a (annual averages), rounded to two decimal places; “recent”: same calculation on the monthly series irt_lt_mcby_m for September 2026 (4.44 - 3.473). Eurostat does not publish the spread itself.
AAA negativepreviously: AAA (stable) (Morningstar DBRS, 17 April 2020)
AA (high) stablepreviously: AAA (negative) (Morningstar DBRS, 16 October 2020)
AA (high) negativepreviously: AA (high) (stable) (Morningstar DBRS, 21 March 2025)
AA stablepreviously: AA (high) (negative) (Morningstar DBRS, 26 September 2025)
AA negativepreviously: AA (stable) (Morningstar DBRS, 18 September 2026)
Scope Ratingsas of 13 October 2026: A+, outlook stable
AA not published (subscription-based rating, not public)(Scope Ratings, 30 June 2017)
AA stablepreviously: AA (subscription-based rating, outlook not published) (Scope Ratings, 30 June 2017)
AA negativepreviously: AA (stable) (Scope Ratings, 26 May 2023)
AA- stablepreviously: AA (negative) (Scope Ratings, 18 October 2024)
AA- negativepreviously: AA- (stable) (Scope Ratings, 26 September 2025)
A+ stablepreviously: AA- (negative) (Scope Ratings, 18 September 2026)
Excessive deficit procedure
The Commission recommends that the Council abrogate the 2009 decision on the existence of an excessive deficit in France. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission report under Article 126(3) of the TFEU concerning France; the Commission does not mention any further step in it. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission report under Article 126(3) of the TFEU concerning France; the Commission does not mention any further step in it. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission report under Article 126(3) of the TFEU concerning France; the Commission does not mention any further step in it. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission report under Article 126(3) of the TFEU concerning France; the Commission does not mention any further step in it. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission report under Article 126(3) of the TFEU concerning France; the Commission does not mention any further step in it. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission opinion (Article 126(5)) concluding that an excessive deficit exists in France, and proposal for a Council decision. (Commission européenne, 8 July 2024)
France submits its first national medium-term fiscal-structural plan (2025-2029). (Conseil de l'Union européenne, 17 January 2025)
The Commission adopts its recommendation for a Council recommendation with a view to bringing an end to the situation of an excessive deficit in France (Article 126(7)). (Commission européenne, 26 November 2024)
France submits an adjusted fiscal trajectory, taking into account the new deficit target for 2025. (Conseil de l'Union européenne, 17 January 2025)
The Council adopts the recommendation setting 2029 as the deadline for correcting the excessive deficit, with a ceiling on net expenditure growth, and endorses France's medium-term fiscal-structural plan; it sets 30 April 2025 as the deadline for effective action. (Conseil de l'Union européenne, 17 January 2025)
European Semester Spring Package: the Commission considers that no further step is needed for France at this stage of the procedure. (Commission européenne, 4 June 2025)
The Council recommends that France comply with the maximum net expenditure growth rates set on 21 January 2025. (Commission européenne, 25 November 2025)
The Commission considers that France's 2026 draft budgetary plan complies with the recommended maximum net expenditure growth, while flagging uncertainty linked to the parliamentary debates. (Commission européenne, 25 November 2025)
France submits its report on the measures taken, included in its 2026 annual progress report. (Commission européenne (DG ECFIN), 20 August 2026)
Commission assessment of effective action: the procedure concerning France is “held in abeyance”. (Conseil de l'Union européenne, 3 July 2026)
Draft Council recommendation: the Commission projects net expenditure growth for 2026 exceeding the recommended annual ceiling by 0.1 point of GDP; the text calls for compliance with the corrective path. (Conseil de l'Union européenne, 3 July 2026)
Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) and Haut Conseil des finances publiques (High Council of Public Finance)
· Cour des comptes, institution (presentation of the report on its publication page)
« En dépit des efforts engagés, la situation des finances publiques de la France est loin d’être assainie. »
Translation by the editorsDespite the efforts undertaken, the state of France's public finances is far from having been put right.
« L’accroissement de la dette française accroît la vulnérabilité des administrations publiques à une augmentation des taux d’intérêt. Or, le niveau faible des taux d’intérêt a de fortes chances de ne pas se perpétuer, et la charge de la dette risque de s’accroître nettement dans les années à venir. »
Translation by the editorsThe growth in French debt increases the vulnerability of general government to a rise in interest rates. Yet the low level of interest rates is very likely not to last, and the debt burden is likely to increase markedly in the coming years.
· Cour des comptes, institution (presentation of the report on its publication page)
« Si la prévision pour 2019 est atteignable, en dépit de risques de dépassement des objectifs de dépenses, la trajectoire 2020-2022, qui ne prend pas en compte les mesures annoncées fin avril à la suite du Grand Débat national, est affectée de nombreuses fragilités, diverge de celle de nos voisins et n’est pas cohérente avec la loi de programmation des finances publiques de janvier 2018. »
Translation by the editorsWhile the forecast for 2019 is achievable, despite risks of overshooting the spending targets, the 2020-2022 trajectory, which does not take into account the measures announced at the end of April following the Grand Débat national, is affected by numerous weaknesses, diverges from that of our neighbours and is not consistent with the public finance programming act of January 2018.
· Cour des comptes, institution (presentation of the report on its publication page)
« La pandémie de Covid-19 a des conséquences de premier ordre sur les finances publiques. Or la France n’a pas abordé cette crise avec une situation budgétaire assainie. »
Translation by the editorsThe Covid-19 pandemic has major consequences for the public finances. Yet France did not enter this crisis with a sound budgetary position.
· Cour des comptes, institution (presentation of the report on its publication page)
« Avec un déficit public de 6,4 points de PIB en 2021, soit plus du double de celui de 2017, et une dette publique supérieure à 110 points de PIB, la France sort de la crise sanitaire avec une situation des finances publiques parmi les plus dégradées de la zone euro. »
Translation by the editorsWith a public deficit of 6.4 points of GDP in 2021, more than double that of 2017, and public debt above 110 points of GDP, France is emerging from the health crisis with one of the most deteriorated public finance positions in the euro area.
· Cour des comptes, institution (presentation of the report on its publication page)
« Alors que la situation économique s’est normalisée et que l’inflation s’est résorbée, la France se trouve aujourd’hui dans une situation préoccupante. La dette publique, emportée par la réitération des déficits et par son poids, affiche un coût de plus en plus élevé qui contraint toutes les autres dépenses, obère la capacité d’investissement du pays et l’expose dangereusement en cas de nouveau choc macroéconomique. »
Translation by the editorsAlthough the economic situation has normalised and inflation has receded, France today finds itself in a worrying situation. Public debt, driven by repeated deficits and by its own weight, carries an ever higher cost that constrains all other spending, impairs the country's capacity to invest and leaves it dangerously exposed in the event of a new macroeconomic shock.
· Haut Conseil des finances publiques, institution (summary of the opinion published on hcfp.fr)
« La France doit impérativement respecter la trajectoire du plan budgétaire et structurel à moyen terme, pour garder le contrôle de ses finances publiques, maîtriser son endettement, tout en finançant les investissements prioritaires et en veillant à ne pas trop affecter son potentiel de croissance. »
Translation by the editorsFrance must imperatively adhere to the trajectory of the medium-term fiscal-structural plan, in order to keep control of its public finances and contain its debt, while financing priority investments and taking care not to affect its growth potential too much.
· Pierre Moscovici, First President of the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit)
« Et cette année, sa publication s’inscrit dans un contexte sinon dramatique, du moins très préoccupant. La France vient de traverser deux années noires en matière de finances publiques. »
Translation by the editorsAnd this year, its publication comes in a context that is, if not dramatic, at least very worrying. France has just been through two dark years in terms of public finances.
· Haut Conseil des finances publiques, institution (summary of the opinion published on hcfp.fr)
« La dette publique continuerait de ce fait de progresser à un rythme préoccupant, passant de plus de 113 points de PIB en 2024 à près de 118 points en 2026, tandis que la charge d’intérêts s’alourdirait de plus de 13 Md€ en seulement deux ans pour atteindre 74 Md€. »
Translation by the editorsPublic debt would therefore continue to rise at a worrying pace, from more than 113 points of GDP in 2024 to nearly 118 points in 2026, while the interest burden would increase by more than €13bn in just two years to reach €74bn.
· Cour des comptes, institution (presentation of the report on its publication page)
« Dix mois avant les échéances politiques de 2027, la Cour des comptes réitère son avertissement : la situation des finances publiques de la France est alarmante et appelle des mesures fortes, crédibles et rapides. »
Translation by the editorsTen months before the political deadlines of 2027, the Cour des comptes reiterates its warning: the state of France's public finances is alarming and calls for strong, credible and rapid measures.
· Haut Conseil des finances publiques, institution (summary of the opinion published on hcfp.fr)
« Le Haut Conseil rappelle résolument que l’ambition de réduction du déficit affichée pour 2027 est un minimum au regard de la situation alarmante des finances publiques. »
Translation by the editorsThe High Council firmly reiterates that the deficit-reduction ambition announced for 2027 is a minimum in view of the alarming state of the public finances.
Exact, dated quotations, as published by the source indicated.
· François Villeroy de Galhau, Governor of the Banque de France · interview on France Info (guest of Jérôme Chapuis)
« Nous sommes à plus de 110 % de dette publique, ce qui est beaucoup plus que la moyenne européenne. C'est presque deux fois plus que l'Allemagne. C'est une bombe à retardement potentielle que nous laissons aux générations suivantes. »
Translation by the editorsWe are at more than 110% public debt, which is much more than the European average. It is almost twice as much as Germany. It is a potential time bomb that we are leaving to the following generations.
· Michel Barnier, Prime Minister · general policy statement to the National Assembly
« La véritable épée de Damoclès, c'est notre dette financière colossale : 3 228 milliards d'euros. Si l'on n'y prend garde, elle placera notre pays au bord du précipice. »
Translation by the editorsThe real sword of Damocles is our colossal financial debt: 3,228 billion euros. If we are not careful, it will bring our country to the edge of the precipice.
· François Bayrou, Prime Minister · general policy statement to the National Assembly
« Cette dette est une épée de Damoclès au-dessus de notre pays et de notre modèle social et ceci est d'autant plus grave que nous avons basculé dans un monde nouveau et dangereux. »
Translation by the editorsThis debt is a sword of Damocles hanging over our country and our social model, and this is all the more serious because we have tipped into a new and dangerous world.
· Amélie de Montchalin, minister responsible for public accounts · interview on RTL (Thomas Sotto)
« Si on ne fait pas aujourd'hui, si on ne prend pas aujourd'hui ces décisions, alors bientôt, ce seront les institutions internationales, nos créanciers privés qui décideront pour nous. »
Translation by the editorsIf we don't do it today, if we don't take these decisions today, then soon it will be the international institutions, our private creditors, who decide for us.
· Amélie de Montchalin, minister responsible for public accounts · interview on RTL (Thomas Sotto)
« Chaque année, bien sûr qu'il y a un risque. Il y a un risque de tutelle des institutions internationales, des institutions européennes, de nos créanciers. »
Translation by the editorsEvery year, of course there is a risk. There is a risk of supervision by the international institutions, by the European institutions, by our creditors.
· François Villeroy de Galhau, Governor of the Banque de France · interview on France Info’s morning programme
« Je rappelle ces chiffres, parce qu'ils marquent le mur de la dette vers lequel, malheureusement, nous avançons toujours, et je dis que nous ne pouvons pas continuer à avancer en somnambules. »
Translation by the editorsI recall these figures because they mark the wall of debt towards which, unfortunately, we are still advancing, and I say that we cannot continue to advance like sleepwalkers.
· François Bayrou, Prime Minister · interview on TF1 (Gilles Bouleau)
« Il y a une deuxième difficulté qui est plus grave et que les Anglais ont rencontré il y a très peu d'années, il y a deux ans ou deux ans et demi, c'est quand vous ne trouvez plus de prêteurs. »
Translation by the editorsThere is a second difficulty which is more serious and which the English encountered very few years ago, two years or two and a half years ago, which is when you can no longer find lenders.
· François Bayrou, Prime Minister · general policy statement to the National Assembly (Article 49, first paragraph, of the Constitution)
« Mais tout cela, toutes ces questions sont aujourd'hui soumises... à la question dont tout dépend, à la question vitale, d'urgence vitale, où notre pronostic vital est engagé, dont dépend notre État, notre indépendance, nos services publics, notre modèle social. C'est la question de la maîtrise de nos dépenses, la question du surendettement. »
Translation by the editorsBut all of this, all these questions are today subject... to the question on which everything depends, the vital question, of vital urgency, where our survival is at stake, on which our State, our independence, our public services, our social model depend. It is the question of controlling our spending, the question of over-indebtedness.
· François Villeroy de Galhau, Governor of the Banque de France · interview in the programme « On n’arrête pas l’éco » on France Inter
« Je vais le dire avec un peu de gravité. Si la France ne réduit pas son déficit à maximum 5% du PIB en 2026, elle se met dans la zone rouge de danger. »
Translation by the editorsI am going to say this with some solemnity. If France does not reduce its deficit to a maximum of 5% of GDP in 2026, it puts itself in the red danger zone.
2016France: 0.9%Euro area (20 countries): 1.8%2017France: 2.1%Euro area (20 countries): 2.7%2018France: 1.6%Euro area (20 countries): 1.8%2019France: 2.0%Euro area (20 countries): 1.7%2020France: −7.4%Euro area (20 countries): −6.0%2021France: 6.9%Euro area (20 countries): 6.4%2022France: 2.7%Euro area (20 countries): 3.7%2023France: 1.6%Euro area (20 countries): 0.4%2024France: 1.5%Euro area (20 countries): 1.2%2025France: 0.8%Euro area (20 countries): 1.2%
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 1.8% in 2016, 1.2% in 2025 (−0.6 points)
Annual change in gross domestic product in volume terms (chained prices of the previous year), as a percentage.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Comptes nationaux annuels base 2020 - Produit intérieur brut - Evolution en volume », 29 May 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
2024 semi-final, 2025 provisional (INSEE, May 2026 release). Quarterly data, not comparable with an annual rate: change in GDP volume of -0.2% in Q1 2026 and 0.0% in Q2 2026 compared with the previous quarter (seasonally and working-day adjusted, detailed results of 28 August 2026). The euro area is the fixed-composition EA20 aggregate.
Euro area (20 countries): €33,980 (chained 2020 euros) in 2016, €37,490 (chained 2020 euros) in 2025 (+10.3%)
Gross domestic product per capita in volume terms, at chained prices of the 2020 reference year.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Comptes nationaux annuels base 2020 - Produit intérieur brut par habitant - Prix chaîné année de base », 29 May 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
Same unit on both sides (chain-linked euros, reference year 2020). Eurostat publishes €35,540 for France in 2016 and €38,360 in 2025, values identical to INSEE's after rounding. 2024 semi-final, 2025 provisional.
2016France: 100.0 indexEuro area (20 countries): 100.2 index2017France: 101.9 indexEuro area (20 countries): 101.7 index2018France: 102.1 indexEuro area (20 countries): 101.9 index2019France: 102.5 indexEuro area (20 countries): 102.5 index2020France: 102.7 indexEuro area (20 countries): 104.7 index2021France: 101.3 indexEuro area (20 countries): 105.0 index2022France: 99.8 indexEuro area (20 countries): 104.9 index2023France: 100.1 indexEuro area (20 countries): 103.5 index2024France: 100.2 indexEuro area (20 countries): 103.4 index2025France: 101.7 indexEuro area (20 countries): 104.4 index
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 100.2 index in 2016, 104.4 index in 2025 (+4.2%)
Real labour productivity per hour worked: GDP in volume terms divided by the total number of hours worked, index base 100 in 2015 (Eurostat, based on INSEE national accounts).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Productivité du travail et coûts salariaux unitaires – données annuelles », 9 October 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
Annual change in hourly productivity published by INSEE (all industries, value added per hour, idbank 011793337): -0.2% (2016), +1.8 (2017), +0.1 (2018), +0.6 (2019), +0.3 (2020), -1.7 (2021), -1.3 (2022), +0.9 (2023), +0.4 (2024, semi-final), +1.5 (2025, provisional); Eurostat (GDP per hour): 0.0; 2.0; 0.2; 0.5; 0.2; -1.4; -1.5; 0.4; 0.0; 1.5. Per person employed (Eurostat RLPR_PER, I15): 100.136 in 2016, 102.527 in 2019, 101.357 in 2025 (p). In 2020, productivity per hour rose while productivity per person fell (-7.4%), as hours worked fell more than employment during the lockdowns.
2016France: 20.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 20.0% of GDP2017France: 21.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 20.3% of GDP2018France: 21.9% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 20.7% of GDP2019France: 22.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 21.9% of GDP2020France: 22.4% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 21.8% of GDP2021France: 23.5% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 21.6% of GDP2022France: 23.5% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 22.0% of GDP2023France: 23.0% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 22.0% of GDP2024France: 22.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 21.1% of GDP2025France: 22.2% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 21.3% of GDP
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 20.0% of GDP in 2016, 21.3% of GDP in 2025 (+1.3 points)
Gross fixed capital formation of all institutional sectors, as a ratio of GDP, in value terms (current prices).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Comptes nationaux annuels base 2020 - Formation brute de capital fixe - Total des secteurs institutionnels - Total des produits - Prix courant », 29 May 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
Calculation: total GFCF (P51G) / GDP, in millions of current euros, × 100; same calculation for the euro area based on Eurostat. Definition used: GFCF of the whole economy (businesses, households, general government, NPISHs), rather than the investment rate of non-financial corporations alone. Example: €466,925m / €2,231,819m in 2016; €663,585m / €2,991,056m in 2025.
Share of manufacturing in value added% of value added
Start, 2016
11.4
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
11.2
Change
−0.2 points
France
Euro area (20 countries)
1012141618
2016France: 11.4% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.8% of value added2017France: 11.3% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.8% of value added2018France: 11.2% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.7% of value added2019France: 11.2% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.5% of value added2020France: 10.4% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.1% of value added2021France: 10.3% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.3% of value added2022France: 10.4% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.4% of value added2023France: 11.3% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 16.2% of value added2024France: 11.4% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 15.9% of value added2025France: 11.2% of value addedEuro area (20 countries): 15.7% of value added
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 16.8% of value added in 2016, 15.7% of value added in 2025 (−1.2 points)
Gross value added of manufacturing (section C of NACE Rev. 2) as a ratio of the gross value added of all industries, in value terms (current prices).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Valeur ajoutée brute et revenu par branche d'activité principale (NACE Rév. 2) - données annuelles », 9 October 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
Calculation: value added of industry C / total value added × 100, in millions of current euros, same calculation for France and the euro area. INSEE does not release section C on its own in the BDM (its macroeconomic database); the sum of its five A17 items (C1 to C5) gives the Eurostat value (€226,870m in 2016, €299,278m in 2025). Share in value terms: it also depends on relative prices; the nominal value added of industry C increases by 16% between 2022 and 2023 in the current vintage.
Exports minus imports of goods for France (including overseas departments), on a FOB/FOB basis, including military equipment, unadjusted data, in billions of current euros.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: DGDDI (Douanes), série diffusée par l'INSEE, « Solde FAB/FAB des échanges de la France y c. DOM - Avec : Le Monde entier - Échanges FAB/FAB y c. matériel militaire - Données estimées brutes - NAF rév. 2 », 7 October 2026.
Annual value = sum of the series' twelve raw monthly balances, rounded to the nearest tenth of a billion (the DGDDI publishes annual series as raw data). The recent data point is a twelve-month cumulative total (September 2025 to August 2026). The data are revised: the annual release of February 2026 gave -€69.2bn for 2025, the series updated on 7 October 2026 totals -€65.2bn.
Most recent: 3.0% (year-on-year change in September 2026, provisional estimate).
France
Euro area (20 countries), HICP
0246810
2016France: 0.2%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 0.2%2017France: 1.0%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 1.5%2018France: 1.9%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 1.8%2019France: 1.1%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 1.2%2020France: 0.5%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 0.3%2021France: 1.6%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 2.6%2022France: 5.2%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 8.4%2023France: 4.9%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 5.4%2024France: 2.0%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 2.4%2025France: 0.9%Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 2.1%
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries), HICP: 0.2% in 2016, 2.1% in 2025 (+1.9 points)
Average annual change in the consumer price index (CPI), all households, France.
Break in series (2026). The CPI has been published on a 2025 base (COICOP 2018 classification) since the update of 27 February 2026; earlier years are published by INSEE on this base.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Indice annuel des prix à la consommation - Base 2025 - Variation annuelle - Ensemble des ménages - France - Ensemble », 27 February 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries), HICP).
The France series is the CPI, the comparison is the HICP (harmonised index), which does not have the same coverage or the same weighting. HICP France (same Eurostat source): 0.3 (2016); 1.2; 2.1; 1.3; 0.5; 2.1; 5.9; 5.7; 2.3; 0.9 (2025). The recent data point is a twelve-month change (September 2026 / September 2025), provisional estimate, and not an annual average.
Number of insolvencies of legal units recorded by date of judgment (Banque de France, Fiben database), twelve-month cumulative total at the end of December, unadjusted data.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Banque de France (base Fiben), série diffusée par l'INSEE, « Nombre de défaillances d'entreprises par date de jugement - Cumul brut glissant sur 12 mois - France - Tous secteurs d'activité », 18 September 2026.
The data are revised every month, as some judgments are recorded late: in February 2026 the Banque de France gave 68,564 business failures at end-December 2025, the series released by INSEE (update of 18 September 2026) counts 68,524. The INSEE series uses Banque de France data (INSEE page 2015359: « Source : Banque de France » [“Source: Banque de France”]). 2010-2019 average published by the Banque de France: 59,342. 2020-2021: period of emergency measures linked to the health crisis, including the temporary closure of courts in spring 2020: the 2020 and 2021 levels should be read in this context.
Gross domestic expenditure on research and development% of GDP
Start, 2016
2.22
Latest, 2024
2.18
Change
−0.04 points
France
Euro area (20 countries)
2.102.152.202.252.302.35
2016France: 2.22% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.12% of GDP2017France: 2.20% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.16% of GDP2018France: 2.20% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.19% of GDP2019France: 2.20% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.23% of GDP2020France: 2.27% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.31% of GDP2021France: 2.21% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.27% of GDP2022France: 2.22% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.25% of GDP2023France: 2.17% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.29% of GDP2024France: 2.18% of GDPEuro area (20 countries): 2.32% of GDP
201620222024
Euro area (20 countries): 2.12% of GDP in 2016, 2.32% of GDP in 2024 (+0.20 points)
Gross domestic expenditure on research and development (businesses, government, higher education, non-profit institutions) as a ratio of GDP.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « DIRD par secteur d'exécution (rd_e_gerdtot) », 29 September 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
The Ministry of Research publishes the same aggregate (2.18% for 2023 in Repères et références statistiques 2026), with possible vintage differences.
Euro area (20 countries): Eurostat, « rd_e_gerdtot », published on 29 September 2026, series rd_e_gerdtot (sectperf=TOTAL, unit=PC_GDP, geo=EA20) ; valeurs 2016, 2018, 2020, 2022 et 2024 estimées (drapeau e).
Gross domestic expenditure on research and development, % of GDP
2016France: 10.1%Euro area (20 countries): 10.1%2017France: 9.4%Euro area (20 countries): 9.1%2018France: 9.1%Euro area (20 countries): 8.2%2019France: 8.5%Euro area (20 countries): 7.6%2020France: 8.1%Euro area (20 countries): 8.0%2021France: 7.9%Euro area (20 countries): 7.8%2022France: 7.3%Euro area (20 countries): 6.8%2023France: 7.4%Euro area (20 countries): 6.6%2024France: 7.4%Euro area (20 countries): 6.4%2025France: 7.7%Euro area (20 countries): 6.4%
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 10.1% in 2016, 6.4% in 2025 (−3.7 points)
Share of people unemployed as defined by the International Labour Office (ILO) in the labour force aged 15 or over, annual average, France including Mayotte, people living in ordinary housing (Labour Force Survey).
Break in series (2021). New Labour Force Survey (enquête Emploi) from Q1 2021 (questionnaire, data collection, weighting): earlier series have been recalculated by INSEE to be consistent with the new survey.
Break in series (2024). Inclusion of Mayotte: the continuous Labour Force Survey has covered Mayotte since 2024; INSEE has backcast the annual series to cover the whole of France (published in Insee Résultats from 2025) and, since the Q2 2026 release, the quarterly series.
Reading this figure
In the 2nd quarter of 2026, in addition to the 8.3% unemployed, 1.9 million inactive people want a job without being counted as unemployed (the halo around unemployment, 4.4% of 15-64-year-olds) and 4.4% of people in employment are underemployed; in total, 17.2% of labour market participants are « contraints dans leur offre de travail » [“constrained in their labour supply”] (unemployment, halo or underemployment), 1.8 points less than at end-2019. (INSEE, « Au deuxième trimestre 2026, le taux de chômage augmente de 0,2 point et atteint 8,3 % – Informations rapides n° 192 », 7 August 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Activité, emploi et chômage en 2025 et en séries longues (Insee Résultats) – Chômage et halo autour du chômage, séries longues », 2 July 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
For 2016 to 2025, the Eurostat series for France (une_rt_a, geo=FR) gives the same values as INSEE (10.1 in 2016, 7.7 in 2025), with the note « définition différente » [“different definition”] from 2021. The France excluding Mayotte series published alongside for Q2 2026 also gives 8.3% for that quarter.
2016France: 64.9%Euro area (20 countries): 65.3%2017France: 65.4%Euro area (20 countries): 66.2%2018France: 66.0%Euro area (20 countries): 67.2%2019France: 66.2%Euro area (20 countries): 67.9%2020France: 66.0%Euro area (20 countries): 66.6%2021France: 67.2%Euro area (20 countries): 67.8%2022France: 68.1%Euro area (20 countries): 69.4%2023France: 68.4%Euro area (20 countries): 70.0%2024France: 68.9%Euro area (20 countries): 70.4%2025France: 69.3%Euro area (20 countries): 70.7%
201620222025
Euro area (20 countries): 65.3% in 2016, 70.7% in 2025 (+5.4 points)
Share of people aged 15 to 64 in employment as defined by the ILO, annual average, France including Mayotte, people living in ordinary housing (Labour Force Survey).
Break in series (2021). New Labour Force Survey from Q1 2021: earlier series have been recalculated by INSEE to be consistent with the new survey.
Break in series (2024). Inclusion of Mayotte in the scope (series backcast to cover the whole of France); for Q2 2026, INSEE states that this change lowers the employment rate of 15-64-year-olds by 0.17 points compared with the scope excluding Mayotte.
Reading this figure
According to the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit), the employment rate of 15-24-year-olds rose by 6 points between 2017 and 2023, to 35.2%, and « le développement de l’alternance explique environ la moitié de cette hausse, l’autre moitié étant liée à l’amélioration de la conjoncture » [“the development of work-study schemes explains about half of this increase, the other half being linked to the improvement in economic conditions”]. (Cour des comptes, « Les mesures d’aide exceptionnelles : une sortie de crise à achever pour le budget de l’État – note de synthèse », 9 January 2025)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Activité, emploi et chômage en 2025 et en séries longues (Insee Résultats) – Emploi, séries longues », 2 July 2026; Eurostat (Euro area (20 countries)).
Eurostat series for France (lfsi_emp_a, geo=FR, note « définition différente » [“different definition”] from 2021): 64.9 (2016), 65.5 (2017), 66.0 (2018), 66.2 (2019), 66.0 (2020), 67.2 (2021), 68.1 (2022), 68.4 (2023), 68.8 (2024), 69.3 (2025); it differs from INSEE by 0.1 points in 2017 and in 2024.
201624,960 thousands of jobs201725,282 thousands of jobs201825,431 thousands of jobs201925,813 thousands of jobs202025,753 thousands of jobs202126,564 thousands of jobs202226,897 thousands of jobs202327,070 thousands of jobs202427,092 thousands of jobs202527,044 thousands of jobs
201620222025
Number of salaried jobs, private and public sectors, measured at the end of the 4th quarter of each year, seasonally adjusted data, France excluding Mayotte (INSEE employment estimates). The difference shown is a difference in thousands of jobs.
Break in series (2018). Agricultural workers on seasonal contracts (Tesa): since Q1 2025, headcounts measured as a monthly average; INSEE has backcast the data on this basis since 2018.
Reading this figure
Apprentices are counted as employees. According to INSEE, work-study employment (apprenticeships and professionalisation contracts) accounts for about a third of the increase in salaried employment between end-2019 and end-2024. In 2025, 43,000 work-study positions were cut, i.e. two thirds of the fall in private salaried employment; INSEE attributes this « principalement » [“mainly”] to « la baisse de l’aide à l’embauche des apprentis depuis février 2025 » [“the reduction in the hiring aid for apprentices since February 2025”]. (INSEE, « Note de conjoncture de juin 2026 – fiche Emploi », 17 June 2026)
Public aid to businesses: the government published a first inventory in October 2026 (annex to the 2027 budget bill, PLF): €60bn on a strict scope and €166bn on a broad scope in 2024. Before that, the Senate (commission of inquiry into the use of public aid to large companies and their subcontractors, report adopted on 1 July 2025) estimates it at « au moins 211 milliards d’euros en 2023 » [“at least 211 billion euros in 2023”] in the broad sense (State subsidies, Bpifrance aid, tax expenditures including « déclassées » (reclassified) ones, reductions in social contributions), and at €108bn excluding Bpifrance, reclassified tax expenditures and VAT tax expenditures. The Minister for the Economy, heard on 15 May 2025, put forward €150bn: €40bn in tax expenditures, €30bn in budgetary spending and €80bn in reductions in contributions. (Sénat, commission d'enquête, « L’essentiel sur le rapport de la commission d’enquête sur l’utilisation des aides publiques aux grandes entreprises et à leurs sous-traitants (rapport n° 808, 2024-2025 ; président Olivier Rietmann, rapporteur Fabien Gay) », 1 July 2025)
The tax credit for competitiveness and employment (CICE), created in 2013 and converted into a reduction in contributions in 2019, was the subject of a monitoring committee attached to France Stratégie. Its September 2020 report states: « L'effet total reste estimé à 100 000 emplois environ, ce qui est faible, rapporté au coût du CICE – de l'ordre de 18 milliards d'euros en 2016. » [“The total effect is still estimated at around 100,000 jobs, which is low relative to the cost of the CICE – of the order of 18 billion euros in 2016.”] (France Stratégie, « Évaluation du crédit d'impôt pour la compétitivité et l'emploi – Synthèse des travaux d'approfondissement, rapport, septembre 2020, résumé », 16 September 2020)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Au deuxième trimestre 2026, l’emploi salarié est quasi stable (-0,1 %) – Informations rapides n° 214 (estimations trimestrielles d'emploi, résultats détaillés) », 28 August 2026.
Scope of the employment estimates: France excluding Mayotte. The 2024 and 2025 values are semi-final (status SD in the INSEE database) and will be revised when benchmarked against the annual employment estimates.
Number of new apprenticeship contracts (including renewals) that began during the calendar year, private and public sectors, the whole of France (departments including overseas departments and regions), unadjusted Dares data.
Break in series (2020). Change of source: from 2013 to 2019, figures consolidated from aggregated information collected from registration bodies and the Ari@ne system; from 2020, the Deca contract filing system (Opco and Dreets). The current series, by contract start date, has been backcast to 2013; the old series by registration date ends in late 2019.
Windfall effects: for the 2020-2021 school year, 499,000 apprenticeship contracts benefited from the exceptional aid, out of 557,641 entries, i.e. a coverage rate of nearly 90%, which the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) considers implies « des effets d’aubaine significatifs » [“significant windfall effects”]. None of the sources read quantifies, in euros or in number of contracts, the share of hires that would have taken place without the aid. (Cour des comptes, « La formation en alternance : une voie en plein essor, un financement à définir – rapport public thématique », 23 June 2022)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Dares, « Contrat d'apprentissage secteurs privé et public – entrées (site POEM, Politique de l'emploi, source Dares, système d'information sur l'apprentissage) », 30 September 2026.
Calendar context, with no causal link established here: Law No. 2018-771 of 5 September 2018 on the freedom to choose one's professional future; exceptional aid for employers of apprentices for contracts concluded from 1 July 2020 (Decree No. 2020-1085). Intra-year data point: 137,267 contracts started from January to July 2026, i.e. -4.3% year on year according to the Dares.
People aged 15 or over who are inactive as defined by the ILO (International Labour Office), who want a job but are not counted as unemployed because they are not seeking work or are not available to work within two weeks; annual average, the whole of France, people living in ordinary housing.
Break in series (2021). New Labour Force Survey from Q1 2021 (questionnaire, data collection, weighting); INSEE states that the data are « corrigées pour les ruptures de série » [“corrected for series breaks”] over the whole period.
Break in series (2024). Inclusion of Mayotte in the continuous Labour Force Survey in 2024; long series backcast by INSEE to cover the whole of France. Since Q2 2026, the quarterly series for the whole of France (idbank 0118185xx) have replaced the series for France excluding Mayotte, which have been discontinued.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Activité, emploi et chômage en 2025 et en séries longues (Insee Résultats) – Chômage et halo autour du chômage, séries longues », 2 July 2026.
The 2020 value reflects the lockdowns (2,281 thousand as an annual average, 2,899 thousand in Q2 2020 in seasonally adjusted data). Share of the unemployment halo in the population aged 15 or over: 3.6% in 2016 and 3.4% in 2025 (T309); the Informations rapides relates the halo to the population aged 15-64 (4.4% in Q2 2026, idbank 011818623). The average of the four seasonally adjusted quarters of 2025 for idbank 011818564 (1,912, 1,930, 1,933, 1,928) is consistent with the published annual average (1,925.6).
Most recent: 4.4% of people in employment (Q2 2026).
46810
20167.2% of people in employment20176.7% of people in employment20186.5% of people in employment20195.8% of people in employment20209.5% of people in employment20216.4% of people in employment20224.6% of people in employment20234.4% of people in employment20244.3% of people in employment20254.4% of people in employment
201620222025
Share, among people in employment aged 15 or over, of those who work part time, want to work more and are available to do so (whether or not they are seeking another job), or who involuntarily worked less than usual (short-time or technical unemployment); annual average, the whole of France, ordinary housing.
Break in series (2021). New Labour Force Survey from Q1 2021; INSEE publishes data « corrigées pour les ruptures de série » [“corrected for series breaks”].
Break in series (2024). Inclusion of Mayotte; long series backcast to cover the whole of France. In Q2 2026, the quarterly series for the whole of France (idbank 011818670) and for France excluding Mayotte (010605933, discontinued in Q1 2026) give identical values or values within 0.1 points.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Activité, emploi et chômage en 2025 et en séries longues (Insee Résultats) – Caractéristiques des emplois, séries longues », 2 July 2026.
The « chômage partiel ou technique » [“short-time or technical unemployment”] component explains the 2020 peak (9.5%) and part of the 2021 level. In numbers: 1,932 thousand people in underemployment in 2016, 1,607 thousand in 2019, 1,293 thousand in 2025 (EMPBIT tab of the same file).
2016France: 28.3%European Union (27 countries): 39.0%2017France: 29.6%European Union (27 countries): 41.3%2018France: 31.2%European Union (27 countries): 43.1%2019France: 32.7%European Union (27 countries): 44.7%2020France: 33.1%European Union (27 countries): 45.3%2021France: 35.5%European Union (27 countries): 46.4%2022France: 36.2%European Union (27 countries): 48.5%2023France: 38.9%European Union (27 countries): 50.9%2024France: 42.4%European Union (27 countries): 53.0%2025France: 44.4%European Union (27 countries): 55.0%
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 39.0% in 2016, 55.0% in 2025 (+16.0 points)
Share of people aged 60 to 64 who are in employment as defined by the International Labour Office (Labour Force Survey).
Break in series (2021). Series break flagged by Eurostat (flag b), for France as well as for the European Union.
Break in series (2024). Series break flagged by Eurostat for France (flag b).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Taux d'emploi par sexe, âge et nationalité (lfsa_ergan) », 10 September 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
Eurostat flags a differing definition for France from 2021 onwards (flag d).
European Union (27 countries): Eurostat, « lfsa_ergan », published on 10 September 2026, series lfsa_ergan (age=Y60-64, sex=T, citizen=TOTAL, unit=PC, geo=EU27_2020).
Living standards and poverty come from INSEE's Revenus fiscaux et sociaux survey, published with a lag of almost two years: the latest known year is 2024.
Monetary poverty rate%
Start, 2016
13.7
Latest, 2024
15.4
Change
+1.7 points
France
European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source
131415161718
2016France: 13.7%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 17.5%2017France: 13.8%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.9%2018France: 14.5%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.8%2019France: 14.3%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.5%2020France: 13.6%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.7%2021France: 14.5%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.8%2022France: 14.4%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.5%2023France: 15.4%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.2%2024France: 15.4%European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.2%2025European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 16.3%
201620222025
European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source: 17.5% in 2016, 16.2% in 2024 (−1.3 points)
Share of people whose standard of living is below 60% of the median standard of living. INSEE scope: metropolitan France, people living in ordinary housing, in a household whose declared income is positive or zero and whose reference person is not a student.
Break in series (2020). Overhaul of the ERFS (tax and social incomes survey) linked to the new Labour Force Survey (2021 redesign, dual production « ancienne » [“old”] and « Pilote » [“pilot”] for 2020). 2020 rate: 13.9% with the old processing chain, 13.6% with the new one. The series used is that of Insee Première No. 2117, in which the years 1996-2019 are backcast using the new method; INSEE's non-backcast long series give 14.0% in 2016, 14.1% in 2017, 14.8% in 2018 and 14.6% in 2019.
Break in series (2020). INSEE states that the 2020 data have weaknesses linked to production difficulties in 2020 (health crisis).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Niveau de vie et pauvreté en 2024 – Insee Première n° 2117 (données, tableau complémentaire 3 « Indicateurs de pauvreté de 1996 à 2024 ») », 9 July 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source).
Comparison: Eurostat dates the data by EU-SILC survey year, with income relating to the previous calendar year (scope France excluding Mayotte, overseas departments included since the 2022 collection). France according to Eurostat (ilc_li02, same filter): 13.6% (2016), 13.2 (2017), 13.4 (2018), 13.6 (2019), 14.2 (2020, break b), 14.3 (2021), 15.6 (2022, break b), 15.4 (2023), 15.9 (2024), 16.3 (2025). No euro area figure is published in ilc_li02.
European Union (27 countries) – EU-SILC, different source
2016
13.7
17.5
2017
13.8
16.9
2018
14.5
16.8
2019
14.3
16.5
2020
13.6
16.7
2021
14.5
16.8
2022
14.4
16.5
2023
15.4
16.2
2024
15.4
16.2
2025
–
16.3
People below the poverty linemillions of people
Start, 2016
8.5
Latest, 2024
9.8
Change
+1.3 millions of people
8.08.59.09.510.0
20168.5 millions of people20178.6 millions of people20189.0 millions of people20198.9 millions of people20208.6 millions of people20219.1 millions of people20229.1 millions of people20239.8 millions of people20249.8 millions of people
201620222024
Number of people whose standard of living is below 60% of the median standard of living, metropolitan France, people living in ordinary housing (excluding households whose reference person is a student).
Break in series (2020). Overhaul of the ERFS (new Labour Force Survey): 8.884 million people in 2020 with the old processing chain, 8.565 million with the new one. The 2016-2019 years of the series used are backcast by INSEE; the non-backcast long series give 8.783 million in 2016 and 9.244 million in 2019. According to INSEE, the 2020 data have weaknesses linked to production difficulties.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Niveau de vie et pauvreté en 2024 – Insee Première n° 2117 (données, tableau complémentaire 3 « Indicateurs de pauvreté de 1996 à 2024 ») », 9 July 2026.
Values published in thousands by INSEE, divided by 1,000. Restricted scope: INSEE notes that an estimate on a broader scope (DROM, overseas collectivities, homeless people) brings the number of poor people to 11.2 million in 2021, and that the SRCV survey puts it at 10.4 million in France excluding Mayotte. Eurostat (ilc_li02, unit=THS_PER, rskpovth=B_60, geo=FR): 8,562 thousand (2016 survey) and 10,880 thousand (2025 survey).
Standard of living (household disposable income divided by the number of consumption units) that divides the population into two halves, in constant 2024 euros, per year.
Break in series (2020). Overhaul of the ERFS (new Labour Force Survey): 2020 median of €25,820 (old chain) and €26,160 (new chain), in 2024 euros. The 2016-2019 years of the series used are backcast by INSEE; non-backcast 2016 value: €24,550. 2020 data fragile according to INSEE.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Niveau de vie et pauvreté en 2024 – Insee Première n° 2117 (données, tableau complémentaire 2 « Niveaux de vie et indicateurs d'inégalités de 1996 à 2024 ») », 9 July 2026.
INSEE reports an increase of 1.8% in constant euros in 2024, i.e. 2,228 euros per month for a single person.
Annual change in household gross disposable income, deflated by the price of household final consumption expenditure and divided by the number of consumption units, as defined in the national accounts (France, households including sole proprietorships).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Les comptes de la Nation en 2025 – Revenu et pouvoir d'achat des ménages, tableau 2.101 « Revenu disponible brut des ménages et évolution du pouvoir d'achat par personne, par ménage et par unité de consommation » », 29 May 2026.
Values to three decimal places in the INSEE file, rounded to one decimal place (0.971; 1.163; 0.329; 1.975 for 2016-2019). 2024 semi-final, 2025 provisional. According to INSEE, gross disposable income is « une grandeur macro-économique » [“a macroeconomic aggregate”] and purchasing power per consumption unit is the indicator « le plus pertinent pour mesurer l'évolution du niveau de vie en moyenne sur l'ensemble des ménages » [“most relevant for measuring the change in the standard of living on average across all households”]; an « arbitrable » [“discretionary”] income closer to households' perceptions is calculated separately. The recent data point is a quarterly change (seasonally and working-day adjusted, compared with the previous quarter), not comparable with an annual change; the carry-over for 2026 at mid-year is -0.7%.
Purchasing power of disposable income per consumption unit, %
Year
France
2016
1.0
2017
1.2
2018
0.3
2019
2.0
2020
−0.3
2021
2.8
2022
−0.3
2023
0.4
2024
2.2 (prov.)
2025
−0.7 (prov.)
Interdecile ratio of living standards (D9/D1)ratio
Start, 2016
3.42
Latest, 2024
3.48
Change
+0.06 ratio
3.253.303.353.403.453.50
20163.42 ratio20173.43 ratio20183.50 ratio20193.44 ratio20203.29 ratio20213.41 ratio20223.38 ratio20233.49 ratio20243.48 ratio
201620222024
Ratio between the lower threshold of the standard of living of the richest 10% of people (9th decile) and the upper threshold of the standard of living of the poorest 10% (1st decile), after redistribution.
Break in series (2020). Overhaul of the ERFS (new Labour Force Survey): D9/D1 of 3.28 in 2020 with the old chain and 3.30 with the new one in the long series; Insee Méthodes No. 145 describes the interdecile ratio as « stable (+0,01) » [“stable (+0.01)”]. The backcast series in Insee Première shows 3.29 for 2020 (rounding difference between publications). Non-backcast 2016 value: 3.40. 2020 data fragile according to INSEE.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Niveau de vie et pauvreté en 2024 – Insee Première n° 2117 (figure 2 « Indicateurs d'inégalités de 1996 à 2024 ») », 9 July 2026.
Interdecile ratio of living standards (D9/D1), ratio
Year
France
2016
3.42
2017
3.43
2018
3.50
2019
3.44
2020
3.29
2021
3.41
2022
3.38
2023
3.49
2024
3.48
Gini index of living standardsindex (0 to 1)
Start, 2016
0.280
Latest, 2024
0.302
Change
+0.022 points
0.2750.2800.2850.2900.2950.3000.305
20160.280 index (0 to 1)20170.281 index (0 to 1)20180.290 index (0 to 1)20190.281 index (0 to 1)20200.277 index (0 to 1)20210.294 index (0 to 1)20220.294 index (0 to 1)20230.297 index (0 to 1)20240.302 index (0 to 1)
201620222024
Summary indicator of inequality in living standards after redistribution, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (extreme inequality).
Break in series (2020). Overhaul of the ERFS (new Labour Force Survey): the 2020 Gini index is 0.007 lower with the new chain than with the old one (Insee Méthodes No. 145). Earlier years of the series used are backcast by INSEE (level correction). 2020 data fragile according to INSEE.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Niveau de vie et pauvreté en 2024 – Insee Première n° 2117 (figure 2 « Indicateurs d'inégalités de 1996 à 2024 ») », 9 July 2026.
European comparison not included because it is published on a different scale (0 to 100) and from a different source: Eurostat ilc_di12 (Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income, age=TOTAL, EU-SILC survey years, previous year's income) gives 30.6 (2016) then 29.2 (2025) for the EU-27, 30.7 then 29.8 for the euro area (EA20), and 29.3 then 30.4 for France (breaks « b » in 2020 and 2022 for France).
4 indicators · Taxes and penalties claimed after tax audits: €14.5bn → €17.1bn, 2016 → 2025
Overall estimates of fraud on taxes and social contributions range from €29bn to €40bn a year (Conseil des prélèvements obligatoires, 2007) to €80bn to €100bn (Solidaires Finances publiques union, 2018, unofficial estimate); other costings cover a single levy, VAT or social contributions. They are given below with their author and method, those of public bodies first, then the reservation expressed by the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit). Four annual series follow: two for DGFiP tax audits, which show what the administration claimed and collected, not what escaped tax; the VAT gap calculated by the European Commission; and an unofficial estimate of the corporate income tax lost through profit shifting to tax havens.
All taxes and contributions, estimate by the Conseil des prélèvements obligatoires (2007), extrapolating the results of DGI and Urssaf audits by company size and sector: irregularities and fraud amounting to « compris entre 29 et 40 Md€ » [“between €29bn and €40bn”], of which €20.5bn to €25.6bn for taxes. (Conseil des prélèvements obligatoires, « La fraude aux prélèvements obligatoires et son contrôle », 1 March 2007)
Under-declaration of VAT by businesses that declare it, DGFiP estimate (2024): « une fourchette de 6 à 10 Md€, soit 4-5 % du montant de TVA effectivement collecté » [“a range of €6bn to €10bn, i.e. 4-5% of the amount of VAT actually collected”]. The Cour des comptes notes that this range is « nettement inférieure à celle estimée par l'Insee en 2022 (entre 20 et 25 Md€) » [“markedly lower than the one estimated by Insee in 2022 (between €20bn and €25bn)”]. (DGFiP, « Le manque à gagner de TVA en France, DGFiP Analyses n° 07 », 3 September 2024)
Fraud on private-sector social contributions in 2024, Urssaf estimate presented to the Haut Conseil du financement de la protection sociale (extrapolated random audits): fraud « comprise entre 6,2 et 7,9 milliards d'euros » [“between 6.2 and 7.9 billion euros”], overall shortfall « compris entre 8,3 et 10,7 milliards d'euros » [“between 8.3 and 10.7 billion euros”]. (Haut Conseil du financement de la protection sociale, « Note annuelle de suivi et d'évaluation des fraudes sociales », 13 January 2026)
Unofficial estimate by the Solidaires Finances publiques union (2018): « l'évitement illégal de l'impôt procédant de la fraude et de l'évasion fiscales » [“illegal avoidance of tax resulting from tax fraud and tax evasion”] at between €80bn and €100bn a year, i.e. 3.5% to 4.4% of GDP. According to the Cour des comptes, this report rests « sur des données antérieures à 2013 » [“on data prior to 2013”] and « n'explicite toutefois pas de manière détaillée la méthodologie qu'il met en œuvre » [“does not, however, set out in detail the methodology it applies”]. (Cour des comptes, « La lutte contre la fraude fiscale », 16 December 2025)
The reservation of the Cour des comptes (December 2025): « L'absence d'estimation fiable, quasiment sans exception, de l'écart fiscal et de la fraude fiscale constitue une carence que la Cour a soulignée à plusieurs reprises. » [“The absence of any reliable estimate, almost without exception, of the tax gap and of tax fraud is a shortcoming that the Court has pointed out on several occasions.”] « Nul ne peut aujourd'hui se hasarder à affirmer que ce montant est proche de 30 ou de 130 Md€ sur un total de prélèvements obligatoires de 1 268 Md€ en 2024. » [“No one can today venture to assert that this amount is close to €30bn or to €130bn, out of total compulsory levies of €1,268bn in 2024.”] (Cour des comptes, « La lutte contre la fraude fiscale », 16 December 2025)
Fraud detected in 2024 by on-site tax audits: €4.4bn, alongside €5.0bn of unintentional irregularities; fraud detected by desk audits is not separately identified (Cour des comptes). (Cour des comptes, « La lutte contre la fraude fiscale », 16 December 2025)
Tax evasion (évasion fiscale): according to the Cour des comptes, its legality is « variable » [“variable”] and « les contours de cette catégorie sont donc poreux, alors qu'elle est fréquemment assimilée à une forme de fraude » [“the boundaries of this category are therefore porous, whereas it is frequently equated with a form of fraud”]. No official source read puts a figure on it as such; the unofficial estimate of profits shifted to tax havens appears further down. (Cour des comptes, « La lutte contre la fraude fiscale », 16 December 2025)
Reassessed taxes and penalties (including late-payment interest) whose recovery the DGFiP (public finances directorate-general) has demanded following a tax audit, on-site and desk audits combined, excluding tax credits and taxes whose refund was refused.
Break in series (2016-2018). Change of presentation from the 2017 statistical report (July 2018) and the 2018 activity report: the total of duties and penalties notified (€19.467bn in 2016) is broken down, and the line used here (« mis en recouvrement » [“assessed for collection”]) excludes unrefunded tax credits and amounts awaiting the opinion of advisory bodies. The years 2016 to 2018 of the series come from this table.
Break in series (2019). From 2019, cases referred to advisory committees are counted after their opinion. According to the Cour des comptes, this change « a pour effet de reporter plus de 2 Md€ sur l'année 2020, sans se poursuivre d'un exercice à l'autre » [“has the effect of shifting more than €2bn to 2020, without carrying over from one financial year to the next”].
Break in series (2016-2019). The 2016 to 2019 values include the amounts of the amending returns processing unit (STDR, regularisation of assets held abroad, open from 2013 to 2017): €2.476bn in duties and penalties in 2016, €1.316bn in 2017, €0.939bn in 2018, €0.358bn in 2019. Excluding STDR, the DGFiP publishes €11.608bn for 2018 and €11.731bn for 2019 (2020 activity report).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Ministère de l'Action et des Comptes publics / DGFiP, « Bilan du contrôle fiscal 2025 (dossier de presse) », 7 April 2026.
Amounts in millions of euros from the activity reports are converted to €bn (divided by 1,000). By adding unrefunded tax credits and taxes (€3.4bn in 2024, €8.4bn in 2025, of which €4.85bn for VAT credit claims from a single company), the DGFiP presents a « contribution totale du contrôle fiscal » [“total contribution of tax audits”] of €25.5bn in 2025; the equivalent total was €19.467bn in 2016. On-site audits were suspended from March to June 2020.
Amounts collected by the DGFiP (public finances directorate-general) during the year in respect of tax audits of that year and previous years, including follow-up on inheritance tax and wealth tax returns; excluding fines under judicial public interest agreements (CJIP).
Break in series (2016-2019). Receipts for 2016 to 2019 include those of the STDR (€0.9bn in 2018 and €0.3bn in 2019 according to the 2020 activity report); from 2020 the DGFiP publishes the amount excluding STDR (€11.0bn excluding STDR for 2019).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Ministère de l'Action et des Comptes publics / DGFiP, « Bilan du contrôle fiscal 2025 (dossier de presse) », 7 April 2026.
A year's receipts relate to audit claims from that year and earlier years: they cannot be matched item by item with the amounts claimed in the same year. Fines under judicial public interest agreements are published separately (€530.3m in 2019). The DGFiP has published this amount since at least 2013 (€10.1bn in 2013 according to the Cour des comptes, €10.4bn in 2014 in the 2016 statistical report).
VAT gap (VAT due but not collected)% of theoretical VAT
Start, 2016
6.8
Latest, 2024 (provisional)
7.4
Change
+0.6 points
France
European Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg)
4681012
2016France: 6.8% of theoretical VAT2017France: 7.3% of theoretical VAT2018France: 6.5% of theoretical VAT2019France: 6.8% of theoretical VATEuropean Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): 11.1% of theoretical VAT2020France: 7.5% of theoretical VATEuropean Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): 9.9% of theoretical VAT2021France: 4.2% of theoretical VATEuropean Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): 7.2% of theoretical VAT2022France: 5.1% of theoretical VATEuropean Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): 7.9% of theoretical VAT2023France: 5.6% of theoretical VATEuropean Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): 9.5% of theoretical VAT2024France: 7.4% of theoretical VAT
201620222024
European Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): 11.1% of theoretical VAT in 2019, 9.5% of theoretical VAT in 2023 (−1.6 points)
Difference between the VAT theoretically due under the legislation (VTTL, estimated from national accounts) and the VAT actually collected, as a ratio of theoretical VAT, according to the European Commission. It covers fraud, evasion, errors, bankruptcies and insolvencies.
Break in series (2016-2018). Backcast values (« backcasted series »): the Commission takes the trend from earlier reports (2013-2024) and rescales it to the level of the full 2019-2023 estimates in the 2025 report.
Break in series (2024). Rapid estimate (« fast estimate ») based on a simplified method, to be revised in the next report.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Commission européenne (DG TAXUD), « VAT gap in Europe – Report 2025 », 11 December 2025; Commission européenne (DG TAXUD) (European Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg)).
In amount terms, France's VAT gap is estimated at €12.121bn in 2023 (theoretical VAT €218.170bn, revenue €206.049bn) and €16.451bn in 2024 (rapid estimate). Each annual report revises the whole series: do not mix vintages.
European Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg): Commission européenne (DG TAXUD), « VAT gap in Europe – Report 2025 », published on 11 December 2025, series Ligne « EU average VAT compliance gap (percent of VTTL) » des tableaux par pays, et Table 7 (EU 2023 : 9.5 %).
VAT gap (VAT due but not collected), % of theoretical VAT
Year
France
European Union (weighted average, excluding Luxembourg)
2016
6.8
–
2017
7.3
–
2018
6.5
–
2019
6.8
11.1
2020
7.5
9.9
2021
4.2
7.2
2022
5.1
7.9
2023
5.6
9.5
2024
7.4 (prov.)
–
Corporate income tax lost through profit shifting to tax havens (unofficial estimate)$bn
Estimate by the EU Tax Observatory (Atlas of the Offshore World, method of Tørsløv, Wier and Zucman), which is not an official statistic: profits of multinationals deemed to have been artificially shifted out of France to tax havens (Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium, Switzerland, Singapore, Bermuda, etc.), based on the abnormal profitability of foreign subsidiaries in those countries, multiplied by the statutory corporate income tax rate. In billions of current dollars, the source's unit. The method does not distinguish legal tax optimisation from fraud.
Break in series (2016-2023). Each annual update of the Observatory revises the whole series: the 2016 to 2019 values differ from those published by Wier and Zucman in 2022. Do not mix vintages.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Observatoire européen de la fiscalité, Atlas of the Offshore World (I. Gidron, L. Wier, G. Zucman), « Global Profit Shifting, 1975-2023 – données de la mise à jour de juillet 2026 (Profit-shifting-July-2026.xlsx) », 23 July 2026.
Profits deemed shifted out of France, according to the same source: $26.7bn in 2016, $68.8bn in 2023. Tax lost as a share of corporate income tax collected: 17.0% in 2016, 24.8% in 2023. The list of tax havens is that of Tørsløv, Wier and Zucman (Hines and Rice, plus the Netherlands, Belgium and Puerto Rico).
A tax expenditure (niche fiscale; a « dépense fiscale » in budget documents) is a reduction, a credit, an exemption or a reduced rate of tax reserved for certain taxpayers or certain activities; a niche sociale (social contribution expenditure) does the same for social contributions. Their cost is revenue forgone, costed each year by the administration in an annex to the budget bill (PLF) and to the social security financing bill, assuming unchanged behaviour: it is not what abolishing them would yield. Multi-year totals are sums of the published annual amounts, calculated by the editors, in current euros. The table following the two series shows who benefits from the main tax expenditures.
Public aid to businesses in 2023, estimate by the Senate committee of inquiry (July 2025): « au moins 211 milliards d'euros » [“at least 211 billion euros”] in the broad sense (subsidies, Bpifrance aid, tax expenditures, including those the administration no longer counts as such, and reductions in social contributions); €108bn excluding Bpifrance, excluding declassified tax expenditures and excluding tax expenditures on VAT. The committee presents this amount as an order of magnitude and a floor. (Sénat, « Rapport n° 808 (2024-2025) de la commission d'enquête sur l'utilisation des aides publiques aux grandes entreprises et à leurs sous-traitants, tome I », 1 July 2025)
Public aid to businesses in 2024, first government inventory (annex to the 2027 budget bill (PLF)): €59.8bn within a « périmètre socle » [“core scope”] (€24.3bn of direct budgetary aid, €27.1bn of tax aid, €4.5bn of targeted exemptions from contributions, €3.9bn of subsidised financial aid) and €166.1bn, i.e. 5.7% of GDP, within a « périmètre élargi » [“broader scope”], which mainly adds €64.7bn of general reductions in social contributions and €22.6bn of reduced VAT rates. The gap with the Senate's €211bn is due to the year (2023) and to the scope: the government does not count Bpifrance financing. (Gouvernement (annexe au PLF 2027), « Annexe au projet de loi de finances pour 2027 – Rapport relatif aux aides publiques aux entreprises », 13 October 2026)
Cost of tax expenditures (State tax expenditures)€bn
Start, 2016
87.6
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
105.6
Change
+20.5%
Cumulative total 2017-2025: €873.7bn — sum of the 9 published annual amounts, calculated by the editors, in current euros (of which 2025 provisional). The year 2016, the last before the election, is not counted. For 2026, only a forecast exists (€100.9bn according to the Cour des comptes, same convention).
Revenue forgone, assuming unchanged behaviour, owing to derogatory tax provisions (tax credits and reductions, exemptions, reduced rates) listed each year in the annex « Évaluation des voies et moyens, tome II » of the budget bill (PLF). Final costing, published two years after the year in question, with VAT counted in full (convention in force until the 2023 PLF, which the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) reconstructs for subsequent years). Excluding schemes that the administration has stopped counting as tax expenditures and excluding niches sociales (social contribution expenditures).
Break in series (2016-2023). The competitiveness and employment tax credit (CICE) is counted in the series: €15.7bn in 2017, €19.2bn in 2019, €1.17bn in 2023. Abolished for wages paid from 2019, it was replaced by a reduction in social contributions, which is not a tax expenditure (see the next indicator): its gradual disappearance weighs on the series from 2020 to 2023. Excluding CICE, the Cour des comptes counts €74.7bn in 2016 and €91.3bn in 2023 (PLF 2024 estimate).
Break in series (2024). The pacte Dutreil (tax relief on business transfers), costed at €500m a year until 2024 then €800m in the PLF 2025, has been re-estimated at €5bn for 2024 following the Cour des comptes report; earlier years have not been recalculated.
Break in series (2024-2025). Since the PLF 2024, the budget annex counts only the share of VAT remaining with the State: presented this way, tax expenditures amount to €82.9bn for 2023, €89.4bn for 2024 and €91.8bn for 2025. The series keeps the old convention, reconstructed by the Cour des comptes to compare years.
Reading this figure
« Les 22 dispositifs dont le coût excède 1 Md€ ne représentent que 4,6 % du nombre total de dispositifs mais environ 60 % de leur coût total » [“The 22 schemes costing more than €1bn represent only 4.6% of the total number of schemes but around 60% of their total cost”] (Cour des comptes, 2026). (Cour des comptes, « Analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Dépenses fiscales », 1 April 2026)
Successive public finance programming acts have set targets for controlling the number and cost of tax expenditures. According to the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit), « leur nombre, particulièrement élevé, de 474, demeure stable en dépit des objectifs affichés de suppression et de rationalisation » [“their number, particularly high at 474, remains stable despite the stated objectives of abolition and rationalisation”]. (Cour des comptes, « Analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Dépenses fiscales », 1 April 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Cour des comptes, « Analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Dépenses fiscales », 1 April 2026.
Cour des comptes values, rounded to €0.1bn. 2025: revised costing from the PLF 2026; the final costing appears with the PLF 2027. 474 tax expenditures were in force in 2025. The cost of a tax expenditure measures the revenue lost assuming unchanged behaviour, not what its abolition would yield.
Cost of tax expenditures (State tax expenditures), €bn
Year
France
2016
87.6
2017
93.4
2018
99.0
2019
99.9
2020
92.7
2021
89.5
2022
95.3
2023
95.2
2024
103.1
2025
105.6 (prov.)
Cumulative total 2017-2025
873.7
General reductions in employer social contributions (niches sociales)€bn
Start, 2016
28.0
Latest, 2024 (provisional)
77.3
Change
+176.1%
Cumulative total 2017-2024: €450.8bn — sum of the 8 published annual amounts, calculated by the editors, in current euros (of which 2024 provisional). 2025 has not yet been published in this series.
Reductions in employer social contributions available to all private-sector employers on wages up to a ceiling (general sliding-scale reduction, 6-point decrease in the health insurance contribution, 1.8-point decrease in the family allowances contribution), across all funds (social security, unemployment insurance, supplementary pensions), as compiled by the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) from the annexes to the social security financing bills. Excludes targeted exemptions and exclusions from the contribution base.
Break in series (2019). According to the Cour des comptes, « la forte hausse en 2019 tient à un effet de périmètre résultant de la transformation du crédit d'impôt pour la compétitivité et l'emploi (CICE) en réduction générale de cotisations sociales » [“the sharp increase in 2019 is due to a scope effect resulting from the conversion of the competitiveness and employment tax credit (CICE) into a general reduction in social contributions”]: the 6-point decrease in the health insurance contribution replaces the CICE, previously counted in tax expenditures, and the general reduction extends to supplementary pension and unemployment insurance contributions.
Break in series (2024). Provisional value according to the source.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Cour des comptes, « Rapport sur l'application des lois de financement de la sécurité sociale 2025, chapitre III : Maîtriser la dynamique des allègements généraux de cotisations sociales », 26 May 2025.
Values read from the data labels of the Cour des comptes chart. According to the annex to the PLFSS 2027, the 2020 fall is due to the collapse in the wage bill linked to the use of short-time work during the health crisis. The cumulative total of this series cannot simply be added to that of tax expenditures: from 2019 to 2022, the CICE due in respect of earlier wages and the reduction that replaced it both had a cost in the same year.
General reductions in employer social contributions (niches sociales), €bn
Year
France
2016
28.0
2017
29.1
2018
30.7
2019
57.3
2020
53.8
2021
59.3
2022
67.9
2023
75.4
2024
77.3 (prov.)
Cumulative total 2017-2024
450.8
Who benefits from the main tax expenditures
Annual cost as costed by the administration, in millions of euros, for the latest available outturn year; beneficiaries as counted by the administration; and what the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit), the Conseil des prélèvements obligatoires or the National Assembly say about how they are distributed. For VAT, since 2024 the budget annex has counted only the share remaining with the State, excluding the share passed on to social security and local authorities. The exemption for aviation kerosene has not been counted as a tax expenditure since 2009: the latest costing read appears in the annex to the 2019 budget bill (PLF).
Scheme
Beneficiaries
Annual cost
Source
Competitiveness and employment tax credit (CICE)
1,217,350 businesses (2017)Abolished for wages paid from 2019 onwards and replaced by a reduction in social contributions. Its cost still reached €19.2bn in 2019, in respect of wages from previous years, according to the Cour des comptes.
4,909,243 households€7,029m forecast in 2025. The 50% of beneficiaries with the lowest incomes receive 39% of the cost, according to the Cour des comptes (2023 incomes).
Pacte Dutreil (transfer of businesses by gift or inheritance)
Heirs and donees of family businesses (number not determined by the administration)Costed at €500m a year until 2024 in the budget annexes. According to the Cour des comptes, which estimates it at more than €5.5bn in 2024, 1% of heirs and donees, i.e. 110 people, receive 65% of the benefit, €30m each on average.
15,085,237 households€5,322m forecast in 2025. According to the Conseil des prélèvements obligatoires (simulation on 2023 incomes), the 10% of households with the highest incomes derive €1.3bn of the €4.6bn from it, and the 40% with the lowest incomes €0.0bn (rounded values).
Excise exemption on aviation kerosene (excluding private leisure aviation)
Air transport (businesses, number not determined)Exemption imposed by the European Energy Taxation Directive, which the administration has counted since 2009 as a method of calculating the tax rather than as a tax expenditure. €3,407m forecast for 2018 and €3,636m for 2019; no more recent costing was found in the budget annexes.
Tonnage tax (flat-rate tax on shipowners in place of corporate income tax)
78 shipping companies, including CMA CGM€3,815m in 2022 and €5,615m in 2023, years of high freight rates; €1,435m forecast in 2025. According to the Finance Committee of the National Assembly, CMA CGM made profits of €14.5bn in 2021 and €24.1bn in 2022 and paid on average €123m of corporate income tax a year from 2021 to 2024.
Share savings plan (PEA) (reinvested dividends and capital gains)
Savers (number not determined)€428m for dividends, €100m for capital gains (sum of two schemes); costings given as an « ordre de grandeur » (order of magnitude).
The public cost of the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games, as established by the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) in its reports to Parliament, the accounts of the organising committee and the dates of the organisation. No annual series: cumulative amounts, dated and sourced.
Public spending on organisation (€3,019.2m): security €1,440.3m; transport €569.9m; public engagement €459.8m; subsidies to the Cojop €224.1m; high performance €80.3m; subsidies to the association « Ambition olympique et paralympique » and to the GIP « Paris 2024 » €27.8m; public health €23.9m; running costs of the Dijop and of ministerial liaison officers €14.3m; other public spending required for the Games €178.8m. (Cour des comptes, « Les Jeux olympiques et paralympiques de Paris 2024 – Rapport au Parlement, septembre 2025, tableau n° 5 », 29 September 2025)
For State security spending (organisation), the Court's table no. 7 sets a forecast of €0.2bn (« Communication du ministre de l’intérieur – PLF 2024 ») against actual spending of €1.44bn. The Court writes in its summary: « La sécurité publique constitue le principal vecteur de dépenses non budgétées lors de la présentation du projet de loi de finances (PLF) 2024. » [“Public security is the main driver of spending not budgeted when the 2024 budget bill (PLF) was presented.”] (Cour des comptes, « Les Jeux olympiques et paralympiques de Paris 2024 – Rapport au Parlement, septembre 2025, synthèse et tableau n° 7 », 29 September 2025)
Local authorities and their public bodies: €730.7m of organisation spending (of which €262.8m for transport and €199.9m for public engagement) and €1.63bn of infrastructure spending (of which €955.6m for sports infrastructure). The Court describes them as « le deuxième financeur de l’héritage matériel des Jeux, derrière l’État » [“the second-largest funder of the material legacy of the Games, behind the State”]. (Cour des comptes, « Les Jeux olympiques et paralympiques de Paris 2024 – Rapport au Parlement, septembre 2025, annexe n° 1 », 29 September 2025)
In 2024, overnight stays in all tourist accommodation fell by 0.6% in France and by 1.7% in Île-de-France compared with 2023. The Court writes: « Les effets d’éviction s’observent dans le recul de la fréquentation touristique en 2024, malgré les Jeux. » [“The crowding-out effects can be seen in the fall in tourist numbers in 2024, despite the Games.”] (Cour des comptes, « Les Jeux olympiques et paralympiques de Paris 2024 – Rapport au Parlement, septembre 2025 », 29 September 2025)
In December 2024, INSEE put the effect of the Games on the third quarter of 2024 at around 0.2 points of GDP: +0.3 points of accounting effects (ticketing and broadcasting rights), reduced by around 0.1 points of crowding-out effects on regular tourists. (INSEE, « Activité économique – Note de conjoncture, décembre 2024 », 17 December 2024)
Impact studies cited by the Court, both based on the « entrée-sortie » (input-output) method: the ex ante study by the Centre de droit et d’économie du sport (CDES), funded by the Paris 2024 bid committee (2016, updated in April 2024), estimates the impact in Île-de-France at between €6.2bn and €9.3bn over 2017-2024; the ex post study by the firm EY for the ministry responsible for sport (April 2025) estimates €7.11bn in Île-de-France and €3bn at national level. The Court writes that these results « doivent être considérés avec une extrême prudence » [“must be treated with extreme caution”]. (Cour des comptes, « Les Jeux olympiques et paralympiques de Paris 2024 – Rapport au Parlement, septembre 2025 », 29 September 2025)
Dates
Meeting in Lima (Peru), the Session of the International Olympic Committee awards the 2024 Games to Paris and the 2028 Games to Los Angeles. (Comité international olympique, 13 September 2017)
Creation of the Games organising committee (Cojop), an association governed by the 1901 law, in accordance with the host city contract signed on 13 September 2017. (Cour des comptes, 6 May 2026)
Law no. 2018-202 on the organisation of the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games (JORF no. 0072 of 27 March 2018). Its Article 29 subjects private-law legal entities that receive public funds for the Games to audit by the Cour des comptes and provides for a first report to Parliament in 2022. (Légifrance, 27 March 2018)
The Cour des comptes submits to Parliament its first report on the preparation of the Games (Article 29 of the law of 26 March 2018). (Cour des comptes, 20 July 2023)
Law no. 2023-380 on the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games (JORF no. 0116 of 20 May 2023). Its Article 20 requires the Cour des comptes to submit a report to Parliament on the organisation, cost and legacy of the Games before 1 October 2025. (Légifrance, 20 May 2023)
Publication of the supplementary report of the Cour des comptes to Parliament on the organisation of the Games. It examines in particular the Cojop's revised multi-year budget adopted on 12 December 2022. (Cour des comptes, 20 July 2023)
End of the Paralympic Games. According to the Cour des comptes, the event took place in France from 26 July to 8 September 2024. (Cour des comptes, 6 May 2026)
The Cour des comptes publishes an interim note, the first inventory of public spending related to the Games: €2.77bn for organisation and €3.19bn for infrastructure. (Cour des comptes, 23 June 2025)
The Cour des comptes publishes its report to Parliament on the organisation, cost and legacy of the Games (Article 20 of the law of 19 May 2023). Three thematic reports are published the same day: security, transport and mobility, and Solideo. (Cour des comptes, 29 September 2025)
The Cour des comptes publishes its final observations on the organising committee (Cojop), deliberated on 5 February 2026. They include the €75.7m surplus communicated to the board of directors on 17 June 2025. The Cojop has been in voluntary liquidation since June 2025. (Cour des comptes, 6 May 2026)
Health and schools
8 indicators · Female life expectancy at birth: 85.3 → 85.9 years, 2016 → 2025 (provisional)
Female life expectancy at birthyears
Start, 2016
85.3
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
85.9
Change
+0.6 years
France
European Union (27 countries)
8283848586
2016France: 85.3 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.5 years2017France: 85.3 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.4 years2018France: 85.4 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.5 years2019France: 85.6 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.8 years2020France: 85.1 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.1 years2021France: 85.2 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 82.8 years2022France: 85.1 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.2 years2023France: 85.6 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 83.9 years2024France: 85.8 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 84.1 years2025France: 85.9 years
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 83.5 years in 2016, 84.1 years in 2024 (+0.6 years)
Average lifespan of a hypothetical generation of women who would experience, throughout their lives, the age-specific mortality conditions of the year in question, France (including Mayotte since 2014).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Bilan démographique 2025 (Insee Première n° 2087) — série « Espérance de vie à la naissance - Femmes - France (inclus Mayotte à partir de 2014) » », 13 January 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
2023 to 2025 values provisional (status P in INSEE's BDM). The EU-27 comparison stops in 2024 (no 2025 data point at Eurostat); the EU-27 values carry the Eurostat flags « e » (estimated) and « b » (break) for several years, and « p » (provisional) from 2020 to 2024. Eurostat calculates its own value for France, which sometimes differs by 0.1 years from INSEE's (85.5 vs 85.4 in 2018; 85.7 vs 85.6 in 2023).
2016France: 79.3 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 77.8 years2017France: 79.4 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 77.9 years2018France: 79.5 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 78.0 years2019France: 79.7 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 78.3 years2020France: 79.1 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 77.4 years2021France: 79.2 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 77.1 years2022France: 79.3 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 77.8 years2023France: 80.0 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 78.6 years2024France: 80.2 yearsEuropean Union (27 countries): 78.9 years2025France: 80.3 years
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 77.8 years in 2016, 78.9 years in 2024 (+1.1 years)
Average lifespan of a hypothetical generation of men who would experience, throughout their lives, the age-specific mortality conditions of the year in question, France (including Mayotte since 2014).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Bilan démographique 2025 (Insee Première n° 2087) — série « Espérance de vie à la naissance - Hommes - France (inclus Mayotte à partir de 2014) » », 13 January 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
2023 to 2025 values provisional (status P in INSEE's BDM). The EU-27 comparison stops in 2024 (no 2025 data point at Eurostat); the EU-27 values carry the Eurostat flags « e » and « b » for several years, and « p » from 2020 to 2024. For men, Eurostat's France values are identical to INSEE's over 2016-2024.
2016France: 3.72‰European Union (27 countries): 3.60‰2017France: 3.86‰European Union (27 countries): 3.50‰2018France: 3.83‰European Union (27 countries): 3.40‰2019France: 3.79‰European Union (27 countries): 3.40‰2020France: 3.58‰European Union (27 countries): 3.30‰2021France: 3.67‰European Union (27 countries): 3.20‰2022France: 3.95‰European Union (27 countries): 3.30‰2023France: 4.00‰European Union (27 countries): 3.30‰2024France: 4.10‰European Union (27 countries): 3.50‰2025France: 3.95‰
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 3.60‰ in 2016, 3.50‰ in 2024 (−0.10‰)
Number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1,000 live births, whole of France.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Bilan démographique 2025 – Tableaux rétrospectifs « Décès, mortalité, espérance de vie », tableau 8 « Mortalité infantile » », 13 January 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
Neonatal mortality rate (under 28 days): 2.62‰ in 2016, 2.93‰ in 2024; post-neonatal (28 days to one year): 1.11‰ then 1.17‰ (same table). The 2025 data point is provisional and the breakdown is not yet available. Eurostat publishes consistent rounded values for France (3.7 in 2016, 4.1 in 2024).
Number of full-time inpatient beds in place at 31 December in public and private health establishments, all disciplines (short stay, psychiatry, medical and rehabilitation care, long-term care).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: DREES, « Les établissements de santé en 2024 – édition 2026, fiche 02 « Les capacités d'accueil en hospitalisations complète et partielle », graphique 1 », 20 May 2026.
Partial hospitalisation places (day hospitalisation, outpatient surgery) are counted separately: 73,603 at end-2016, 90,986 at end-2024 (same file, chart 2). The DREES defines beds as those « en état d'accueillir des patients » [“ready to receive patients”]; beds temporarily closed, notably for lack of staff, are excluded.
2015France: 493 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 487 score2018France: 495 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 490 score2022France: 474 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 475 score2025France: 458 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 465 score
201520222025
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 487 score in 2015, 465 score in 2025 (−22 score)
Average score of 15-year-old pupils in France in the OECD PISA assessment of mathematical literacy (reference scale set to an OECD average of 500 when it was created).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: OCDE, « PISA 2025 Results (Volume I) — Table I.B1.2a.38 « Mean mathematics performance, 2003 through 2025 » », 8 September 2026; OCDE (OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015)).
Values rounded to the nearest whole number from scores published with decimals (France: 492.9; 495.4; 473.9; 457.7). The cycle scheduled for 2021 was postponed to 2022; according to the OECD, « the PISA Governing Board postponed the assessment to 2022 because of the many difficulties education systems faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic ». 2022-2025 difference published by the OECD for France: -16 points.
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): OCDE, « PISA 2025 Results (Volume I) — Table I.B1.2a.38 », published on 8 September 2026, series Table I.B1.2a.38, ligne « OECD average-35 » (moyenne des pays de l'OCDE hors Costa Rica, Luxembourg et Espagne).
PISA score in mathematics, score
Year
France
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015)
2015
493
487
2018
495
490
2022
474
475
2025
458
465
PISA score in readingscore
Start, 2015
499
Latest, 2025
456
Change
−43 score
France
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015)
450460470480490500
2015France: 499 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 490 score2018France: 493 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 488 score2022France: 474 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 477 score2025France: 456 scoreOECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 463 score
201520222025
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): 490 score in 2015, 463 score in 2025 (−27 score)
Average score of 15-year-old pupils in France in the OECD PISA assessment of reading literacy.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: OCDE, « PISA 2025 Results (Volume I) — Table I.B1.2a.37 « Mean reading performance, 2000 through 2025 » », 8 September 2026; OCDE (OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015)).
Values rounded to the nearest whole number from scores published with decimals (France: 499.3; 492.6; 473.9; 456.3). 2022-2025 difference published by the OECD for France: -18 points. According to the OECD, the cycle scheduled for 2021 was postponed to 2022 because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015): OCDE, « PISA 2025 Results (Volume I) — Table I.B1.2a.37 », published on 8 September 2026, series Table I.B1.2a.37, ligne « OECD average-35 » (moyenne des pays de l'OCDE hors Costa Rica, Luxembourg et Espagne).
PISA score in reading, score
Year
France
OECD average (35 countries comparable since 2015)
2015
499
490
2018
493
488
2022
474
477
2025
456
463
Score of CM1 pupils (Year 5) in mathematics (TIMSS)score
Start, 2015
488
Latest, 2023
484
Change
−4 score
France
Average of the 22 participating European Union countries
480490500510520530
2015France: 488 score2019France: 485 score2023France: 484 scoreAverage of the 22 participating European Union countries: 524 score
20152023
Average of the 22 participating European Union countries: 524 score in 2023
Average score of CM1 pupils (fourth year of primary school) in mathematics in the IEA's TIMSS international survey, conducted in France by the DEPP every four years.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: DEPP, « Note d'information n° 24.47, « Timss 2023 en CM1 : les résultats en mathématiques et en sciences restent stables en France, sous la moyenne européenne, avec une hausse des inégalités entre filles et garçons » », 1 December 2024; DEPP (Average of the 22 participating European Union countries).
Four-yearly survey: 2015 is the last data point before May 2017. The DEPP describes the 2019-2023 difference as « semblable » [“similar”]; the gap between boys and girls in mathematics rises from 6 points in 2015 to 23 points in 2023 (same note). The 2023 score has a 95% confidence interval of 478 to 490.
Score of CM1 pupils (Year 5) in mathematics (TIMSS), score
Year
France
Average of the 22 participating European Union countries
2015
488
–
2019
485
–
2023
484
524
Domestic expenditure on education% of GDP
Start, 2016
6.7
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
6.7
Change
0.0 points
6.66.76.86.9
20166.7% of GDP20176.7% of GDP20186.7% of GDP20196.6% of GDP20206.9% of GDP20216.8% of GDP20226.8% of GDP20236.7% of GDP20246.8% of GDP20256.7% of GDP
201620222025
Spending by all funders (State, local authorities, other public bodies, businesses, households) on education from nursery school to continuing education, as a share of GDP (DEPP education account).
Break in series (2025). The 2025 data point comes from the September 2026 edition of the education account; the 2024 data point (6.8%, provisional) is from the 2025 edition, revised down by less than 0.1 points in the 2026 edition.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE (d'après MEN-MESRE-DEPP, compte de l'éducation), « France, portrait social, édition 2025 – fiche « Dépenses d'éducation », figure 2 », 18 November 2025.
In euros, spending amounts to €197.1bn in 2024 and €199.2bn in 2025 (provisional). Spending covers all funders and all levels, including apprenticeships (DEPP definition).
Payment appropriations of the « Défense » mission opened in the initial finance act, excluding the contribution to the « Pensions » special allocation account, in billions of current euros (scope of the military programming act).
Break in series (2016-2017). Amounts excluding exceptional resources (REX); including the planned REX, the 2017 initial finance act (LFI) amounted to €32.69bn according to the Cour des comptes.
Break in series (2020). Scope change: abolition of budgetary rents paid by government departments (€85m in 2020 according to the Court), hence a gap of €0.1bn between the LFI and Article 3 of the LPM (military programming act) 2019-2025 from 2020 onwards.
Reading this figure
For the years 2023 to 2025, the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit) notes that the initial finance acts complied « à l’euro près » [“to the euro”] with the military programming, but that « l’exécution budgétaire s’en est sensiblement écartée, en ressources comme en besoins » [“budget execution departed from it significantly, in both resources and needs”]: resources exceeded those of the budget bills by €7.0bn (4.1%), and unprogrammed needs reached €5.1bn, including €3.0bn for strengthening NATO's eastern flank and supporting Ukraine. (Cour des comptes, « Analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Défense (synthèse) », 1 April 2026)
The carry-over of charges of the « Défense » mission (invoices carried over to the following financial year) went from €3.9bn (16.3% of appropriations excluding Title 2) in 2019 to €3.9bn (13.7%) in 2022, then to €6.1bn (19.8%) in 2023, €8.0bn (23.8%) in 2024 and €8.1bn (22.0%) in 2025. The Prime Minister had set a ceiling of 20% in 2023; the Cour considers that the 2025 level « reste significativement au-delà de l’autorisation accordée par la Première ministre » [“remains significantly above the authorisation granted by the Prime Minister”]. (Cour des comptes, « Analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Défense, tableau n° 9 : report de charges par programme », 1 April 2026)
Military support to Ukraine: the ministry estimates it at €5.9bn from 24 February 2022 to 31 December 2024, plus the French contribution to the European Peace Facility (FEP), « jusqu’à 2,3 Md€ » [“up to €2.3bn”]; then at €6.5bn from 24 February 2022 to 31 December 2025, FEP included (« jusqu’à 2,1 Md€ » [“up to €2.1bn”]). The two figures do not have the same scope (FEP excluded in 2025, included in 2026): they cannot be subtracted to obtain the 2025 aid, which no official source consulted provides. (Ministère des Armées et des Anciens combattants, « Rapport au Parlement 2026 sur les exportations d'armement de la France (page 34) », 1 July 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Cour des comptes, « Note d'analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2022 – Mission Défense (Tableau n° 15 : effort de défense et répercussion sur les crédits du PIB, source ministère des armées) », 1 April 2023.
Series based on the initial finance act, not on outturn: the Cour des comptes publishes outturn on scopes that differ from year to year (excluding or including assigned revenue, carry-overs, exceptional resources, CAS Pensions (Pensions special allocation account)). Outturn benchmarks: €32.58bn in 2016 and €33.25bn in 2017 (excluding CAS Pensions, excluding FDC/ADP, excluding REX, NEB 2017, chart No. 7); €62.1bn in payment appropriations consumed in 2025, CAS Pensions included, for €59.9bn opened in the LFI (NEB 2025). For 2026, the updated LPM (Law No. 2026-791 of 16 August 2026) sets €57.1bn; the budget bill for 2026 requested €57.15bn excluding pensions (Senate, special report by Mr Dominique de Legge, « L'essentiel sur… le projet de loi de finances pour 2026 – Mission Défense »): forecast, outside the series.
Appropriations for the « Défense » mission excluding pensions, €bn
Year
France
2016
31.8
2017
32.4
2018
34.2
2019
35.9
2020
37.5
2021
39.2
2022
40.9
2023
43.9
2024
47.2
2025
50.5
Defence spending as % of GDP (NATO definition)% of GDP
Start, 2016
1.79
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
2.04
Change
+0.25 points
France
NATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO)
1.41.61.82.02.22.4
2016France: 1.79% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.41% of GDP2017France: 1.78% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.45% of GDP2018France: 1.81% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.48% of GDP2019France: 1.82% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.51% of GDP2020France: 1.99% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.69% of GDP2021France: 1.90% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.62% of GDP2022France: 1.87% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.62% of GDP2023France: 1.88% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.71% of GDP2024France: 2.04% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.96% of GDP2025France: 2.04% of GDPNATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 2.31% of GDP
201620222025
NATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO): 1.41% of GDP in 2016, 2.31% of GDP in 2025 (+0.90 points)
“Core” defence expenditure as defined by NATO, including pensions of military and civilian defence personnel, as a share of GDP, calculated by NATO at 2021 prices. Benchmarks: at the Wales summit (5 September 2014), Allies below 2% of GDP committed to « move towards the 2% guideline within a decade »; at The Hague summit (25 June 2025), they committed to « allocate at least 3.5% of GDP annually based on the agreed definition of NATO defence expenditure by 2035 », plus up to 1.5% of GDP of defence- and security-related spending.
Break in series (2017-2024). The “NATO Europe and Canada” aggregate changes composition with accessions (Montenegro 2017, North Macedonia 2020, Finland 2023, Sweden 2024). It is an overall ratio, not a simple average of the countries.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: OTAN, « Defence Investment of NATO Countries (2014-2026), communiqué de presse, Table 3 : Core defence expenditure as a share of GDP and annual real change », 7 July 2026; OTAN (NATO Europe and Canada (aggregate published by NATO)).
NATO estimates for 2026 (outside the series): 2.22% for France, 2.53% for NATO Europe and Canada. France's “core” defence expenditure according to NATO (Table 1, current prices): €39,950m in 2016, €61,002m in 2025 (estimate), €67,632m in 2026 (estimate). The 2026 edition is entitled « Defence Investment » and distinguishes “core” expenditure (3.5% target) from defence- and security-related investment (up to 1.5%); the series above covers “core” expenditure only. NATO ratios are calculated at 2021 prices and differ from the national ratios published by the Ministry of the Armed Forces.
Positions filled (outturn) for the « Défense » mission (military and civilian staff of the Ministry of the Armed Forces, ministerial staffing ceiling), in full-time equivalents worked (average actual headcount over the year).
Break in series (2022). The 2022 LFI removes apprentices from ministries' staffing ceilings (- 2,200 ETPT, full-time equivalents worked, compared with the 2022 PAP for the Défense mission, according to the Cour des comptes); part of the decrease between 2021 and 2022 is due to this scope change.
Reading this figure
The ministry has not filled all authorised posts: the vacancy below the employment ceiling reached 8,096 full-time equivalents worked (ETPT) at end-2023, 5,097 at end-2024 and 4,420 at end-2025. For 2025, the Cour notes that the ministry « reste très en-deçà des objectifs de trajectoire en effectifs complets prévus en LPM, du fait de la sous-réalisation de son schéma d’emploi en 2023 » [“remains well short of the full-strength trajectory targets set in the LPM, owing to the under-achievement of its staffing plan in 2023”]. (Cour des comptes, « Analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Défense », 1 April 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Cour des comptes, « Mission Défense – Note d'analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2020 (Graphique n° 13 : Plafond d'emploi voté et exécuté, Mission Défense, 2016-2020, en ETPT) », 1 April 2021.
Staffing ceiling voted in the LFI: 271,510 ETPT in 2016, 271,117 ETPT in 2025. The NEB 2025 cites 265,458 ETPT for 2024 (footnote), the NEB 2024 265,457 ETPT: the NEB 2024 value is used. Scope: including SIAé, the Présidence de la République and volunteers in the voluntary military service, according to the note to the NEB 2025 chart.
Value of arms contracts that entered into force during the year (orders taken) for French companies, all destinations, in billions of current euros, as published in the Government's annual report to Parliament on arms exports.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Ministère des Armées et des Anciens combattants, « Rapport au Parlement 2026 sur les exportations d'armement de la France, annexe 5 : Détail des prises de commandes (CD) depuis 2016 en millions d'euros par pays et répartition régionale (euros courants) », 1 July 2026.
Annex 5 values (€m) divided by 1,000. A year's amounts depend on the entry into force of a few large contracts: €16,926.7m for the United Arab Emirates in 2022; €5,901.2m for the Netherlands in 2024 (same annex). The 2025 report gave €21.6bn for 2024, identical to the 2026 edition.
NATO summit in Wales: Allies whose defence spending is below 2% of GDP commit to moving towards that level within ten years. (OTAN, 5 September 2014)
Promulgation of Law no. 2018-607 on military programming for the years 2019 to 2025 (€35.9bn excluding pensions in 2019, €44.0bn in 2023, target of a defence effort of 2% of GDP in 2025). (Légifrance (copie web.archive.org du 23/10/2022), 14 July 2018)
Promulgation of Law no. 2023-703 on military programming for the years 2024 to 2030: €413.3bn of programmed needs over the period, of which €400bn of budget appropriations excluding pensions (€47.2bn in 2024, €67.4bn in 2030). (Sénat, 14 May 2025)
Signature by Presidents Emmanuel Macron and Volodymyr Zelensky of a bilateral Franco-Ukrainian security agreement concluded for ten years. (Ministère des Armées, 30 September 2025)
NATO summit in The Hague: Allies commit to spending 5% of GDP a year on defence by 2035, of which at least 3.5% on « cœur » (core) defence spending and up to 1.5% on defence- and security-related spending; trajectory to be reviewed in 2029. (OTAN, 25 June 2025)
Address to the armed forces by the President of the Republic at the Hôtel de Brienne: announcement of an effort of €3.5bn in 2026 and an additional €3bn in 2027 on top of the LPM (military programming act), i.e. €64bn for defence in 2027, and of an update of the LPM. (Présidence de la République (Élysée), 13 July 2025)
Final adoption by the National Assembly of the bill updating the 2024-2030 military programming: the trajectory of payment appropriations for the « Défense » mission rises from €400bn to €436bn over 2024-2030 (€57.1bn in 2026, €63.3bn in 2027, €75.7bn in 2030), of which €36bn of new resources over 2026-2030. (Assemblée nationale, 1 July 2026)
Decision no. 2026-907 DC of the Constitutional Council on the law updating military programming, referred to it by MPs on 6 July 2026: no provision is declared unconstitutional; the contested provisions of Articles 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35 are declared constitutional, and those of Article 41 are held to have been adopted under a valid procedure. (Conseil constitutionnel, 6 August 2026)
5 indicators · Official development assistance: 0.38% → 0.42% of GNI, 2016 → 2025 (provisional)
Official development assistance% of GNI
Start, 2016
0.38
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
0.42
Change
+0.04 points
France
comparison series
France and All DAC member countries
0.20.30.40.50.6
2016France: 0.38% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.32% of GNI2017France: 0.43% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.31% of GNI2018France: 0.43% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.30% of GNI2019France: 0.44% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.30% of GNI2020France: 0.53% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.32% of GNI2021France: 0.51% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.33% of GNI2022France: 0.56% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.37% of GNI2023France: 0.49% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.37% of GNI2024France: 0.48% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.34% of GNI2025France: 0.42% of GNIAll DAC member countries: 0.26% of GNI
20162025
France and EU countries that are DAC members (combined)
0.20.30.40.50.6
2016France: 0.38% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.47% of GNI2017France: 0.43% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.45% of GNI2018France: 0.43% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.43% of GNI2019France: 0.44% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.42% of GNI2020France: 0.53% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.49% of GNI2021France: 0.51% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.49% of GNI2022France: 0.56% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.57% of GNI2023France: 0.49% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.52% of GNI2024France: 0.48% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.47% of GNI2025France: 0.42% of GNIEU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.42% of GNI
20162025
All DAC member countries: 0.32% of GNI in 2016, 0.26% of GNI in 2025 (−0.06 points)
EU countries that are DAC members (combined): 0.47% of GNI in 2016, 0.42% of GNI in 2025 (−0.05 points)
France's official development assistance (APD) as a share of its gross national income, according to the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC). United Nations target: 0.7% of GNI; Law No. 2021-1031 of 4 August 2021 provides that France « s'efforcera d'atteindre 0,7 % du revenu national brut en 2025 » [“will strive to reach 0.7% of gross national income in 2025”].
Break in series (2018). Since 2018, the OECD has measured APD in « équivalent-don » [“grant equivalent”]; 2016 and 2017 are in net disbursements, the method in force at the time. The two methods are not directly comparable.
Reading this figure
According to preliminary OECD data published on 9 April 2026, the official development assistance (ODA) of DAC countries amounts to 0.26% of their gross national income in 2025, against 0.34% in 2024. France is the fifth largest provider by volume in 2025, with $14.5bn; four countries exceed the 0.7% target set by the United Nations. (OCDE, « International aid fell sharply in 2025, says OECD », 9 April 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: OCDE, « CAD1 : Flux par fournisseur (APD+AASP+privé) – OECD Data Explorer, jeu DSD_DAC1@DF_DAC1 (v1.8) », 9 April 2026; OCDE (All DAC member countries); OCDE (EU countries that are DAC members (combined)).
The 2025 value is a preliminary OECD figure (April 2026). The target of 0.7% of GNI in 2025 in the law of 4 August 2021 was preceded by indicative targets of 0.61% (2023) and 0.66% (2024) set in the same law (Article 2, III, 2°, version in force since 26 June 2024).
Amount of France's official development assistance on a grant-equivalent basis, in billions of current euros, according to the OECD Development Assistance Committee.
Break in series (2018). Grant equivalent has been the OECD's reference measure since 2018; the 2016 and 2017 amounts in grant equivalent are published by the OECD in the same dataset, but the reference APD for those two years was then measured in net disbursements (€8.70bn in 2016 and €10.05bn in 2017, measure 1010, FLOW_TYPE=1140).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: OCDE, « CAD1 : Flux par fournisseur (APD+AASP+privé) – OECD Data Explorer, jeu DSD_DAC1@DF_DAC1 (v1.8) », 9 April 2026.
Values published in millions of euros, divided by 1,000 and rounded to two decimal places. In current dollars, the OECD publishes $9.59bn in 2016 and $14.53bn in 2025 (same measure, UNIT_MEASURE=USD). The 2025 value is preliminary.
Levy on State revenue for the European Union (PSR-UE), outturn, in billions of current euros. It comprises the VAT-, GNI- and plastics-based resources, lump-sum reductions and other payments; customs duties (traditional own resources) are not included.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: DGFiP (data.economie.gouv.fr), « Jeux de données des situations mensuelles budgétaires de l'État des exercices 2013 à nos jours (séries longues SMB 2013-2023 et 2024-xx) », 13 October 2026.
Values published in euros (cumulative at 31 December), divided by 10^9 and rounded to two decimal places: €18,995,500,711 in 2016; €22,961,730,323 in 2025. The Budget Directorate (annex to the PLF 2025) gives €18,988m for 2016 and the same amounts as the DGFiP, to within a million, for 2017 to 2023. The annex states that « les versements exceptionnels de 2016 à 2019 correspondent au paiement de la part française de la première tranche de la facilité en faveur des réfugiés en Turquie » [“the exceptional payments from 2016 to 2019 correspond to the payment of France's share of the first tranche of the Facility for Refugees in Turkey”].
Payment appropriations consumed (outturn) of the « Action extérieure de l'État » mission of the general budget, all programmes and titles combined, including assigned revenue (fonds de concours).
Break in series (2016). The 2016 total includes temporary programme 341 (Paris climate conference, COP 21), €143.6m in payment appropriations consumed in 2016.
Break in series (2018). In 2018 and 2019, the mission includes temporary programme 347 (French G7 presidency): €0.08m in 2018, €16.6m in 2019.
Break in series (2025). In 2025, the staff appropriations of programme 209 (« Aide publique au développement » mission) are incorporated into programme 105; these programme 209 staff appropriations amounted to €163.4m in outturn in 2024 in the « Aide publique au développement » mission.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: DGFiP (data.economie.gouv.fr), « Projet de loi relatif aux résultats de la gestion et portant approbation des comptes de l'année (PLRG) 2025 – Annexe1-Etat_CP-2025.csv (colonne Depenses_constatees) », 22 April 2026.
Amounts in euros summed by programme then rounded to the nearest hundredth of a billion: €3,258.7m (2016), 2,837.0 (2017), 2,963.4 (2018), 2,819.3 (2019), 2,941.0 (2020), 2,864.2 (2021), 3,040.2 (2022), 3,114.1 (2023), 3,288.5 (2024), 3,378.0 (2025). The 2024 total matches the 2024 annual performance report (€3,288,548,749); the Cour des comptes rounds to €3.28bn.
Positions filled (full-time equivalents worked) of the « Action extérieure de l'État » mission (programmes 105, 151 and 185 of the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs), excluding positions in programme 209 of the « Aide publique au développement » mission.
Break in series (2025). In 2025, all of the ministry's staff appropriations, including those of programme 209 (Aide publique au développement), are grouped under programme 105. The Cour des comptes presents the 2025 value (12,311 ETPT, ceiling 12,402) in continuity with 2019-2024; programme 105 has 13,892 ETPT in the PLF 2025, including the 1,490 ETPT transferred from programme 209.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Cour des comptes, « Note d'analyse de l'exécution budgétaire 2025 – Mission Action extérieure de l'État (tableau n° 10 : plafond d'emplois et exécution) », 1 April 2026.
2016: National Assembly report (P105 7,753, P151 3,321, P185 828 ETPT); 2017 and 2018: sum of ETPT outturn for programmes 105, 151 and 185 taken from the data of the settlement bills; 2019 to 2025: table No. 10 of the Cour des comptes (the 2019 total from the PLR 2019 data, 12,075.37 ETPT, matches). The staffing ceiling of the ministry as a whole (Action extérieure de l'État mission and programme 209) was used up to 13,971 ETPT in 2016 and 13,683 ETPT in 2024 (see “How to read this figure”).
Jobs in the Action extérieure de l'État (External Action of the State) mission, FTE (ETPT)
Year
France
2016
11,902
2017
11,920
2018
11,851
2019
12,076
2020
12,018
2021
12,111
2022
12,097
2023
12,114
2024
12,211
2025
12,311
Military presence in Africa: decisions, withdrawals and closures
Press conference at the Élysée the day after a dinner with African, European and Canadian partners: the President of the Republic announces that France and the States of the Takuba task force are withdrawing their military presence from Mali, with the closure of the bases at Gossi, Ménaka and Gao. (Présidence de la République, 17 February 2022)
The last detachment of Operation Barkhane crosses the border between Mali and Niger at 1 pm; the Gao desert operational platform was handed back to the Malian armed forces during the night of 14 to 15 August. The same day, the Élysée issues a statement: « Depuis ce matin, 15 août 2022, ce redéploiement est effectif avec le départ du Mali du dernier soldat français de l'opération Barkhane » [“Since this morning, 15 August 2022, this redeployment has been effective with the departure from Mali of the last French soldier of Operation Barkhane”]. (Ministère des Armées – État-major des armées, 18 August 2022)
In Toulon, presenting the National Strategic Review, the President of the Republic formally announces the end of Operation Barkhane and a phase of discussions on « le statut, le format et les missions des actuelles bases militaires françaises au Sahel et en Afrique de l'Ouest » [“the status, format and missions of the current French military bases in the Sahel and West Africa”]. (Présidence de la République, 9 November 2022)
The last French troops present in the Central African Republic under national command (Logistics Mission, MISLOG, around 130 troops) leave the country; the M'Poko camp had been handed back to the Central African authorities on 13 December 2022. (Ministère des Armées, 16 December 2022)
Burkina Faso's transitional authorities terminate the 2018 bilateral agreement on the status of French forces; on 28 February 2023, they also terminate the 1961 agreement on technical military assistance. (Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 27 March 2026)
Speech by the President of the Republic before his tour of Central Africa, on military partnership: a future presence « au sein de bases, d'écoles, d'académies qui seront cogérées » [“within bases, schools and academies that will be co-managed”], with French troop numbers « à des niveaux moindres » [“at lower levels”]. (Présidence de la République, 27 February 2023)
On the 8 pm news on TF1 and France 2, the President of the Republic announces the return of the French ambassador to Niger and the end of military cooperation with the de facto authorities; he states that the troops will return « d'ici la fin de l'année » [“by the end of the year”]. (Présidence de la République, 24 September 2023)
The Ministry of the Armed Forces announces the start, « cette semaine » [“this week”], of the disengagement of French troops and military assets from Niger, with the return of all troops planned before the end of the year. (Ministère des Armées, 5 October 2023)
Signature of a protocol between French and Nigerien forces providing for the departure of the troops and the return of the last French military base in Niger on 22 December 2023; according to the same ministerial answer, personnel movements began on 22 October 2023 and nearly 1,500 people were disengaged in two months. (Assemblée nationale – réponse du ministère des Armées (JO), 14 May 2024)
Fewer than 100 French troops remain at Niamey air base, with no combat troops, armoured vehicles or combat aircraft. (Ministère des Armées, 21 December 2023)
The Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs announces the closure « jusqu'à nouvel ordre » [“until further notice”] of the French embassy in Niger; the embassy continues its activities from Paris. (Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 2 January 2024)
Creation of the Commandement pour l'Afrique (Africa Command, CPA), a Paris-based headquarters responsible for implementing the new French set-up in Africa. (Ministère des Armées – Terre Mag, 12 January 2026)
Gabon: ceremony transferring a military academy at Camp de Gaulle, on the camp of the French Elements in Gabon; the Ministry of the Armed Forces headlines that the camp « devient un pôle de formation mixte » [“becomes a joint training hub”]. (Ministère des Armées, 17 July 2024)
Signature in Paris, by the French and Djiboutian presidents, of a new defence cooperation treaty between France and Djibouti, concluded for twenty years; the 2011 treaty was due to expire on 30 April 2024. The law authorising its ratification is Law no. 2025-579 of 27 June 2025 (JO no. 149 of 28 June 2025). (Gouvernement (étude d'impact du projet de loi n° 491, Sénat 2024-2025), 26 March 2025)
The Chadian government decides to end the defence cooperation agreement with France. In its answer to the Senate, the Ministry of the Armed Forces writes that France « a pris acte de la dénonciation des accords de défense et de la demande de retrait » [“has taken note of the termination of the defence agreements and of the request for withdrawal”]. (Sénat – question écrite n° 02597 de M. Jean-Luc Ruelle et réponse du ministère des Armées (JO Sénat), 12 December 2024)
Before the conference of ambassadors, the President of the Republic states that France proposed to African heads of state that it reorganise its military presence and « laissé la primauté de l'annonce » [“left them the privilege of making the announcement”]. (Présidence de la République, 6 January 2025)
Chad: handover of the Abéché camp to the Chadian military, presented as the penultimate stage in the reconfiguration of the French military set-up in Chad. (Ministère des Armées, 16 January 2025)
The Ministry of the Armed Forces announces the end of the permanent French military presence in Chad and states that Camp Kossei (N'Djamena) is « d'ores et déjà rétrocédé » [“already handed back”] to the Chadian army. Exact date of the handover not given: 30 January 2025 at the latest (publication date). (Ministère des Armées, 30 January 2025)
Completion of the disengagement of the French military set-up in Chad, under way since 10 December 2024; the bases have been handed back to the Chadian armed forces and a defence mission is maintained at the embassy. (Sénat – réponse du ministère des Armées et des Anciens combattants (JO Sénat), 13 November 2025)
Joint statement by the French and Senegalese foreign ministers: creation of a joint commission to organise the departure of the French Elements in Senegal and the return of the bases by the end of 2025. (Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 12 February 2025)
Côte d'Ivoire: handover of the Port-Bouët military camp, home since 1978 to the 43rd Marine Infantry Battalion, in the presence of the Minister of the Armed Forces; the camp is renamed « Camp Thomas d'Aquin Ouattara ». The Lomo-Nord camp had been returned in September 2024. (Ministère des Armées, 21 February 2025)
Speech by the French ambassador to Gabon for the national day: the French Elements in Gabon were replaced « il y a quelques jours » [“a few days ago”] by the Joint Liaison Detachment in Gabon (DLIA-G); Camp de Gaulle « n'est plus une « base française » » [“is no longer a ‘French base’”]. (Ambassade de France au Gabon (MEAE), 8 December 2025)
Senegal: signature by the two chiefs of defence staff of a letter of intent setting a temporary partnership framework « sans emprises permanentes » [“without permanent bases”]; according to the MEAE (Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs), the military bases occupied by France were entirely returned during 2025. (Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 13 October 2026)
Electricity generation by nuclear power plants in France, in terawatt-hours over the calendar year, according to data from the transmission system operator RTE.
Reading this figure
RTE states that in the nuclear fleet, « aux arrêts habituels, est venu s'ajouter en 2022 et 2023 l'effet significatif des contrôles et réparations liées au phénomène de corrosion sous contrainte identifié fin 2021 par EDF » [“the usual outages were compounded in 2022 and 2023 by the significant effect of the inspections and repairs linked to the stress corrosion phenomenon identified by EDF at the end of 2021”]. RTE describes 2022 production (279.0 TWh) as a « niveau historiquement faible » [“historically low level”]. (RTE, « Analyses et données – Production nucléaire », 2 October 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: RTE, « Analyses et données – Production nucléaire (Bilan électrique) », 2 October 2026.
Values rounded to one decimal place from the annual data published by RTE (e.g. 383.976 TWh for 2016); the rounded figures for 2022 (279.0), 2024 (361.7) and 2025 (373.0) are those written by RTE in the text of the page. The two Fessenheim reactors were shut down in 2020; the Flamanville EPR was connected to the grid on 21 December 2024.
Energy that EDF's nuclear fleet could produce, as a share of the theoretical maximum energy corresponding to operation at full installed capacity all year; only technical unavailability (planned outages, unplanned outages, tests) is taken into account.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: EDF, « Disponibilité du parc nucléaire d'EDF SA – Depuis 2002 (Open Data Groupe EDF) », 22 April 2026.
Company data published by EDF (operator), under the Licence Ouverte 2.0; scope EDF SA, metropolitan France excluding Corsica and the Ponant islands. RTE, for its part, publishes fleet availability in MW (daily data), which is not the same indicator.
Share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption%
Start, 2016
15.5
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
23.9
Change
+8.4 points
France
European Union (27 countries)
15.017.520.022.525.027.5
2016France: 15.5%European Union (27 countries): 18.0%2017France: 15.8%European Union (27 countries): 18.4%2018France: 16.4%European Union (27 countries): 19.1%2019France: 17.2%European Union (27 countries): 19.9%2020France: 19.1%European Union (27 countries): 22.0%2021France: 19.4%European Union (27 countries): 21.9%2022France: 20.3%European Union (27 countries): 23.0%2023France: 22.5%European Union (27 countries): 24.6%2024France: 23.2%European Union (27 countries): 25.2%2025France: 23.9%European Union (27 countries): 26.2%
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 18.0% in 2016, 26.2% in 2025 (+8.2 points)
Share of energy produced from renewable sources in gross final energy consumption, as defined by the European renewable energy directive (Eurostat SHARES indicator).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Part des énergies renouvelables (nrg_ind_ren) », 15 September 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
France's 2020 target: 23% (Directive 2009/28/EC, Annex I, compared with 10.3% in 2005); value recorded in 2020: 19.1%, i.e. 3.9 points below the target (subtraction 23 − 19.109). 2030 target set in law: « 33 % au moins » [“at least 33%”] of gross final energy consumption (Energy Code, Art. L100-4, as worded by Law No. 2019-1147 of 8 November 2019). Eurostat values rounded to one decimal place (e.g. 15.451 for 2016); 2025 flagged « p » (provisional) by Eurostat.
Share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption, %
Year
France
European Union (27 countries)
2016
15.5
18.0
2017
15.8
18.4
2018
16.4
19.1
2019
17.2
19.9
2020
19.1
22.0
2021
19.4
21.9
2022
20.3
23.0
2023
22.5
24.6
2024
23.2
25.2
2025
23.9 (prov.)
26.2
Electricity prices for householdsc€/kWh
Start, 2016
17.11
Latest, 2025
25.61
Change
+49.7%
Most recent: 24.85 c€/kWh (H1 2026).
France
European Union (27 countries)
15.017.520.022.525.027.530.0
2016France: 17.11 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 20.69 c€/kWh2017France: 17.56 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 20.89 c€/kWh2018France: 17.99 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 21.52 c€/kWh2019France: 19.13 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 21.69 c€/kWh2020France: 19.58 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 21.53 c€/kWh2021France: 20.22 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 24.15 c€/kWh2022France: 22.04 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 27.68 c€/kWh2023France: 25.91 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 28.47 c€/kWh2024France: 29.26 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 28.87 c€/kWh2025France: 25.61 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 28.96 c€/kWh
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 20.69 c€/kWh in 2016, 28.96 c€/kWh in 2025 (+40.0%)
Average electricity price paid by households consuming 2,500 to 4,999 kWh per year (Eurostat band DC), all taxes and levies included, in the second half of each year.
Reading this figure
According to the Cour des comptes (Court of Audit), in March 2024, the cost to the State of the measures adopted since autumn 2021 against rising energy prices (tariff shields on electricity and gas, fuel discounts, aid to businesses) would amount to « près de 72 Md€ au titre des années 2021 à 2024 » [“nearly €72bn for the years 2021 to 2024”], including €24.1bn for 2022 and €37.6bn for 2023. Net of revenue linked to high prices (public service charges, contributions on windfall rents), the Cour estimates the State's financing requirement at €36bn over 2021-2024. (Cour des comptes, « Les mesures exceptionnelles de lutte contre la hausse des prix de l'énergie – Rapport public thématique », 15 March 2024)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Prix de l'électricité pour les clients résidentiels – données semestrielles (nrg_pc_204) », 12 October 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
Each annual data point is the second-half value published by Eurostat (2016-S2 to 2025-S2); the recent data point is the first half of 2026 (France). The EU-27 value for the first half of 2026 had not been published as at 13/10/2026. Current prices in euros.
2016France: 7.56 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 9.66 c€/kWh2017France: 7.41 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 9.62 c€/kWh2018France: 7.24 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 9.59 c€/kWh2019France: 7.89 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 10.31 c€/kWh2020France: 8.07 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 10.72 c€/kWh2021France: 8.82 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 13.16 c€/kWh2022France: 11.42 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 20.16 c€/kWh2023France: 20.32 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 18.66 c€/kWh2024France: 14.46 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 17.12 c€/kWh2025France: 12.12 c€/kWhEuropean Union (27 countries): 15.96 c€/kWh
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 9.66 c€/kWh in 2016, 15.96 c€/kWh in 2025 (+65.2%)
Average electricity price paid by non-household consumers using 2,000 to 19,999 MWh per year (Eurostat band ID), excluding VAT and other recoverable taxes, in the second half of each year.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Prix de l'électricité pour les clients non résidentiels – données semestrielles (nrg_pc_205) », 9 October 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
Each annual data point is the second-half value published by Eurostat (2016-S2 to 2025-S2); the recent data point is the first half of 2026 (France), the corresponding EU-27 value not having been published as at 13/10/2026. Current prices in euros. In the first half of 2023, the published France value is €0.2529/kWh.
Balance of France's energy imports and exports (oil, gas, coal, electricity, biofuels, wood energy), in billions of constant 2025 euros.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SDES (ministère de la Transition écologique), « Bilan énergétique de la France en 2025 – Données provisoires (Datalab essentiel) – Séries longues », 22 April 2026.
Series published by the SDES in constant 2025 euros (millions of euros, rounded here to the nearest tenth of a billion); the 2025 value in constant 2025 euros is equivalent to the value in current euros. The SDES states that the bill « est divisée par près de trois par rapport au record atteint en 2022 » [“is almost three times lower than the record reached in 2022”]. 2025 data provisional.
Ratio of domestic primary energy production to primary energy consumption (domestic energy demand), whole of France, actual data (not adjusted for weather variations).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SDES (ministère de la Transition écologique), « Bilan énergétique de la France en 2025 – Données provisoires (Datalab essentiel) – Séries longues », 22 April 2026.
The SDES writes that the rate « progresse de 1,7 point, pour s'établir à 62,7 % en 2025, soit son niveau le plus haut depuis 1970 » [“rises by 1.7 points to 62.7% in 2025, its highest level since 1970”]. International aviation bunkers are excluded from the annual balance; the quarterly rates in the SDES energy situation report follow a different method and are not comparable. Values rounded to one decimal place (e.g. 53.432 for 2016).
Net balance of France's commercial electricity exchanges with its neighbours (exports minus imports), all borders; a positive value indicates a net export balance.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: RTE, « Analyses et données – Échanges commerciaux (Bilan électrique) », 2 October 2026.
Commercial exchanges (exchange schedules resulting from market transactions), not physical flows. In 2022, the balance shows net imports (−16.5 TWh). Values rounded to one decimal place from RTE annual data (e.g. 39.145 TWh for 2016).
Balance of electricity trade with other countries, TWh
Year
France
2016
39.1
2017
38.0
2018
60.2
2019
55.7
2020
43.2
2021
43.3
2022
−16.5
2023
50.3
2024
89.0
2025
92.3
Closures, commissionings and decisions
Law no. 2019-1147 on energy and climate: the deadline for the target of reducing the share of nuclear power in electricity generation to 50% (Energy Code, Art. L100-4, I, 5°) is postponed from 2025 to 2035. (Légifrance (Journal officiel), 9 November 2019)
Decree no. 2020-456 on the multi-year energy programme (PPE), covering the period 2019-2028, published in the Journal officiel of 23 April 2020. (Légifrance (Journal officiel), 23 April 2020)
Speech by the President of the Republic in Belfort (« Reprendre en main notre destin énergétique ! ») announcing the construction of six EPR2 reactors and the launch of studies for eight additional EPR2s, with commissioning of the first reactor targeted « à l'horizon 2035 » [“by 2035”]. (Élysée, 10 February 2022)
Law no. 2023-491 on accelerating procedures for the construction of new nuclear facilities: it repeals 5° of I of Article L100-4 of the Energy Code (target of reducing the share of nuclear power to 50% of electricity generation by 2035) and Article L311-5-5 of the same code. (Légifrance (Journal officiel), 23 June 2023)
First connection to the national electricity grid of the Flamanville 3 EPR reactor (Manche), at 11.48 am, for an output of 100 MWe. (EDF, 21 December 2024)
EDF presents to its board of directors a provisional estimate of €72.8bn in 2020 euros for the programme of six EPR2s (Penly, Gravelines and Bugey sites). (EDF, 18 December 2025)
Decree no. 2026-76 on the multi-year energy programme (third PPE, period 2026-2035), published in the Journal officiel of 13 February 2026. (Légifrance (Journal officiel), 13 February 2026)
Fifth Nuclear Policy Council: the Élysée sets the goal of a final investment decision by EDF's board of directors on the EPR2 programme « avant la fin de l'année 2026 » [“before the end of 2026”], « pour une première mise en service d'ici 2038 » [“for a first commissioning by 2038”]. No final investment decision was found in the official sources consulted as at 13 October 2026. (Élysée, 12 March 2026)
Chart as an index, 2016 = 100 for each series, to compare changes.
European Union (27 countries): 3,796.9 Mt CO2e in 2016, 3,017.2 Mt CO2e in 2024 (−20.5%)
National emissions of the seven Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases on French territory (mainland France and the overseas territories included in the EU), excluding LULUCF sinks and sources (land use and forestry) and excluding international transport, in millions of tonnes of CO2 equivalent (100-year GWP from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report).
Reading this figure
According to the Haut Conseil pour le climat (High Council on Climate), France's gross emissions fell by 2.1% between 2024 and 2025 (preliminary estimate), from 367 to 359 Mt CO2e, after −3.0% in 2024; the HCC writes that « pour respecter le 3e budget carbone (2024-2028), le rythme doit s’accélérer et au moins doubler, pour atteindre en moyenne plus de 4 % par an en 2026, 2027 et 2028 » [“to comply with the 3rd carbon budget (2024-2028), the pace must accelerate and at least double, to reach on average more than 4% per year in 2026, 2027 and 2028”]. (Haut Conseil pour le climat, « Rapport annuel 2026 — Dangers climatiques : la France face à ses responsabilités (résumé exécutif et recommandations) », 9 July 2026)
The HCC titles section 4.1 of its 2026 report: « Le rythme de baisse d’émissions observé pour 2025 a encore ralenti ce qui reporte les efforts sur les années à venir. » [“The pace of emissions reduction observed for 2025 has slowed further, which shifts the efforts onto the years ahead.”] It adds that the indicative annual ceilings for 2024 and 2025 « sont respectés car la trajectoire de la SNBC 3 a été alignée sur le ralentissement observé pour ces deux années » [“are met because the SNBC 3 trajectory was aligned with the slowdown observed for those two years”]. (Haut Conseil pour le climat, « Rapport annuel 2026 — résumé exécutif, section 4.1 », 9 July 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Citepa, « Rapport Secten, édition 2026 — Données de gaz à effet de serre (fichier 01-Citepa_Emissions-par-substance_Secten-GES_2026) », 16 June 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
The whole series comes from the 2026 edition of the inventory (revised every year); 2025 is a Citepa « estimation proxy » [“proxy estimate”], with consolidated 2025 values expected in June 2027. For 2016-2024, Eurostat's France values (env_air_gge, TOTX4_MEMO) are identical to Citepa's (e.g. 463.71 in 2016, 367.02 in 2024), which makes the EU-27 comparison consistent; the EU-27 has no 2025 data point in Eurostat at this date.
Consumption of natural, agricultural and forest landha
Start, 2016
20,977
Latest, 2024 (provisional)
15,119
Change
−27.9%
14,00016,00018,00020,00022,000
201620,977 ha201721,172 ha201820,877 ha201918,754 ha202019,549 ha202120,130 ha202219,336 ha202318,073 ha202415,119 ha
201620222024
Natural, agricultural or forest land that became urbanised during the year (flow from 1 January of the year to 1 January of the following year), whole of France, measured by Cerema from the DGFiP Fichiers fonciers (land files). The Climat et résilience law sets 2021-2031 consumption at less than half that of 2011-2021 (see note).
Break in series (2011-2024). The 2011-2025 vintage (2026) recalculates the entire series since 2011 with new processing (neutralisation of buildings predating 2011, of plots still declared under the CAP, of certain photovoltaic installations and of consumption below 50 m², reallocation to the year of construction); it replaces the figures released in previous years.
Reading this figure
Over 2011-2025, Cerema counts 299,392 ha of natural, agricultural and forest land consumed, i.e. 21,385 ha per year on average; it notes that consumption in 2024 « représente près de la moitié de celle observée en 2011 » [“represents nearly half of that observed in 2011”] and that the figure for the latest year is provisional and underestimated. (Cerema, « Analyse de la consommation d'espaces naturels agricoles et forestiers entre 2011 et 2025 », 22 June 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Cerema (pour le ministère de la Transition écologique, DGALN) — portail national de l'artificialisation, « Analyse de la consommation d'espaces naturels agricoles et forestiers entre 2011 et 2025 (période du 1er janvier 2011 au 1er janvier 2025) », 22 June 2026.
Target: Article 191 of the Climat et résilience law of 22 August 2021 (2021-2031 consumption less than half that of 2011-2021, no net land take in 2050). According to Cerema, the latest year « ne bénéficie pas encore des reports de consommation d'ENAF des années suivantes, ce qui conduit pour le moment à une sous-estimation temporaire » [“does not yet benefit from the carry-over of consumption of natural, agricultural and forest land (ENAF) from subsequent years, which for the time being leads to a temporary underestimate”].
Consumption of natural, agricultural and forest land, ha
Year
France
2016
20,977
2017
21,172
2018
20,877
2019
18,754
2020
19,549
2021
20,130
2022
19,336
2023
18,073
2024
15,119 (prov.)
Share of agricultural area under organic farming%
Start, 2016
5.3
Latest, 2024
9.5
Change
+4.2 points
France
European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020
5678910
2016France: 5.3%European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020: 7.1%2017France: 6.1%European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020: 7.5%2018France: 7.1%European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020: 8.0%2019France: 7.8%European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020: 8.5%2020France: 8.8%European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020: 9.1%2021France: 9.5%2022France: 9.8%2023France: 9.6%2024France: 9.5%
201620222024
European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020: 7.1% in 2016, 9.1% in 2020 (+2.0 points)
Utilised agricultural area (excluding kitchen gardens) certified organic or in conversion, as a share of total utilised agricultural area (Eurostat series, data transmitted by France). National targets: 15% in 2022 (Ambition Bio 2022 programme), 18% in 2027 (national strategic plan), 21% in 2030 (2025 agricultural orientation act).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Surface agricole couverte par l'agriculture biologique (indicateur ODD 2.40) », 6 October 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020).
France values for 2020 to 2024 and EU values for 2018 to 2020 carry Eurostat's « estimé » [“estimated”] flag (e); Eurostat does not publish the EU-27 aggregate after 2020. The Agence Bio, which relates organic areas to the utilised agricultural area of the annual agricultural statistics, publishes higher shares (10.1% in 2024, see “How to read”). The 15% target for 2022 comes from the Ambition Bio 2022 programme (25 June 2018), not from the text of the EGalim law.
Share of agricultural area under organic farming, %
Year
France
European Union (27 countries) — Eurostat series discontinued in 2020
2016
5.3
7.1
2017
6.1
7.5
2018
7.1
8.0
2019
7.8
8.5
2020
8.8
9.1
2021
9.5
–
2022
9.8
–
2023
9.6
–
2024
9.5
–
Harmonised risk indicator for pesticides (HRI1)index (2011-2013 average = 100)
Start, 2016
99
Latest, 2024
53
Change
−46 points
France
European Union (27 countries)
20406080100120
2016France: 99 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 95 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2017France: 89 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 88 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2018France: 111 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 90 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2019France: 59 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 80 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2020France: 60 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 73 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2021France: 60 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 63 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2022France: 54 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 45 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2023France: 50 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 39 index (2011-2013 average = 100)2024France: 53 index (2011-2013 average = 100)European Union (27 countries): 41 index (2011-2013 average = 100)
201620222024
European Union (27 countries): 95 index (2011-2013 average = 100) in 2016, 41 index (2011-2013 average = 100) in 2024 (−54 points)
Sum of the quantities of plant protection active substances sold during the year, weighted according to four risk groups, relative to the 2011-2013 average. Main indicator of the Écophyto 2030 strategy (published on 6 May 2024), which aims for a 50% reduction in use and risks by 2030 compared with 2011-2013.
Break in series (2024). Change of steering indicator: the Écophyto II+ plan was monitored using the NODU (number of unit doses, target −50% in 2025); the Écophyto 2030 strategy uses HRI1 as its main indicator. The NODU is still published (see “How to read”).
Reading this figure
The agricultural NODU (area that would be treated at the maximum approved doses with the products sold) was 103.3 million hectares in 2016 according to the ministerial publication of November 2022, and 94.8 million hectares in 2024 according to that of September 2026 (+6% year on year). The Écophyto II+ plan aimed to cut this NODU by 50% by 2025. (Ministère de l'Agriculture, « Les indicateurs de suivi de la stratégie Écophyto 2030 », 9 September 2026)
Quantities of active substances sold reach 69,800 tonnes in 2024 (+8% year on year), including 28,670 tonnes of substances authorised in organic farming or biocontrol; glyphosate sales rise again to 8,269 tonnes in 2024 after 5,860 tonnes in 2022. (Ministère de l'Agriculture, « Les indicateurs de suivi de la stratégie Écophyto 2030 », 9 September 2026)
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Ministère de l'Agriculture, « Résultats des indicateurs de risque harmonisés pour l'année 2024 en France — Évolution sur la période 2011-2024 », 9 September 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
The ministry attributes the 2018 increase to purchases made in anticipation of the increase in the diffuse pollution charge on 1 January 2019, and the 2019 decrease to the use of these stocks. The 2025 publication gave 51 for 2023; the 2026 publication gives 50.
Number of farms in metropolitan France, according to agricultural censuses and farm structure surveys (Agreste, Ministry of Agriculture). No annual series: data points for 2016 (survey), 2020 (census) and 2023 (survey).
Break in series (2016-2023). The 2016 and 2023 data points come from sample surveys, the 2020 data point from an exhaustive census. Agreste notes that between 2020 and 2023 the number of micro-farms fell more sharply, linked to the CAP reform restricting aid to « agriculteurs actifs » [“active farmers”], and limits its comparisons to the scope excluding micro-farms (273,400 farms in 2023).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Agreste (ministère de l'Agriculture), « Enquête sur la structure des exploitations agricoles en 2023 — L'agrandissement des exploitations se poursuit depuis 2020 (Primeur n° 2, version révisée) », 1 June 2025.
The 2010 census counted 489,977 farms (table in the Primeur RA 2020). In the DROM (overseas departments and regions): 26,700 farms in 2020 and « un peu plus de 23 500 » [“just over 23,500”] in 2023.
Net agricultural entrepreneurial income per non-salaried workerindex (2020 = 100)
Start, 2016
79.4
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
108.7
Change
+36.9%
France
European Union (27 countries)
75100125150175200
2016France: 79.4 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 76.2 index (2020 = 100)2017France: 106.1 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 95.9 index (2020 = 100)2018France: 130.9 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 91.5 index (2020 = 100)2019France: 117.3 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 96.8 index (2020 = 100)2020France: 100.0 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 100.0 index (2020 = 100)2021France: 132.4 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 109.0 index (2020 = 100)2022France: 177.2 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 131.9 index (2020 = 100)2023France: 128.8 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 115.1 index (2020 = 100)2024France: 84.5 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 113.9 index (2020 = 100)2025France: 108.7 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 131.7 index (2020 = 100)
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 76.2 index (2020 = 100) in 2016, 131.7 index (2020 = 100) in 2025 (+72.7%)
Net entrepreneurial income of the agricultural sector per non-salaried annual work unit, in real terms (deflated by the GDP price index): indicator B of Eurostat's economic accounts for agriculture, equivalent to INSEE's « résultat net de la branche agricole par actif non salarié » [“net income of the agricultural sector per non-salaried worker”].
Break in series (2024-2025). The changes in the Eurostat series for France (−34.4% in 2024, +28.6% in 2025) differ from those in INSEE's provisional account of 7 July 2026 (−28.2% in 2024, +32.4% in 2025); Eurostat's 2025 values are marked « estimé » [“estimated”].
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Comptes économiques de l'agriculture — revenu du secteur agricole, indicateurs », 25 June 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
INSEE only publishes this result as an annual change (table 10.104); the index level comes from Eurostat. According to INSEE, the agricultural account « ne constitue pas une mesure du revenu disponible des ménages dont la personne de référence est agriculteur » [“is not a measure of the disposable income of households whose reference person is a farmer”].
Net agricultural entrepreneurial income per non-salaried worker, index (2020 = 100)
Year
France
European Union (27 countries)
2016
79.4
76.2
2017
106.1
95.9
2018
130.9
91.5
2019
117.3
96.8
2020
100.0
100.0
2021
132.4
109.0
2022
177.2
131.9
2023
128.8
115.1
2024
84.5
113.9
2025
108.7 (prov.)
131.7
Agricultural factor income per workerindex (2020 = 100)
Start, 2016
93.4
Latest, 2025 (provisional)
106.0
Change
+13.5%
France
European Union (27 countries)
80100120140160
2016France: 93.4 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 82.0 index (2020 = 100)2017France: 108.8 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 95.3 index (2020 = 100)2018France: 122.5 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 92.5 index (2020 = 100)2019France: 113.2 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 96.4 index (2020 = 100)2020France: 100.0 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 100.0 index (2020 = 100)2021France: 116.1 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 105.0 index (2020 = 100)2022France: 140.3 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 119.0 index (2020 = 100)2023France: 117.5 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 111.4 index (2020 = 100)2024France: 95.4 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 111.3 index (2020 = 100)2025France: 106.0 index (2020 = 100)European Union (27 countries): 121.4 index (2020 = 100)
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 82.0 index (2020 = 100) in 2016, 121.4 index (2020 = 100) in 2025 (+48.2%)
Net value added at factor cost of the agricultural sector per annual work unit (salaried and non-salaried), in real terms: indicator A of Eurostat's economic accounts for agriculture.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Eurostat, « Comptes économiques de l'agriculture — revenu du secteur agricole, indicateurs », 25 June 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
For 2025, INSEE (provisional account of 7 July 2026) gives +15.8% for this indicator; the Eurostat value corresponds to +11.1%.
Exports minus imports of agricultural, forestry and fishery products, food industry products and tobacco (CPF rev. 2.1, divisions 01 to 03 and 10 to 12), France including the overseas departments (DOM), customs data processed by the SSP of the Ministry of Agriculture.
Break in series (2022). From 2022, data collection on trade with EU countries no longer relies on a reporting threshold but on a sample of companies (Agreste methodological note).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: Agreste (ministère de l'Agriculture) d'après les Douanes, « Commerce extérieur agroalimentaire — En 2025, l'excédent agroalimentaire français atteint son plus bas niveau depuis la fin des années soixante-dix (Infos rapides n° 17) », 1 February 2026.
Values published in €m (5,937 in 2016; 181 in 2025), divided by 1,000. Customs (Douanes) revise the data over about 24 months. The balance excluding wines and spirits is not published; the file gives the balance for grape wines (€7.54bn in 2016, €10.30bn in 2025) and that for spirits (€3.01bn in 2016, €2.85bn in 2025).
Conseil d'État (Council of State), decision no. 394254, Les Amis de la Terre France: it orders the Government to draw up and implement plans to bring concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and PM10 fine particles below the European limit values in 13 zones, before 31 March 2018. (Conseil d'État, 12 July 2017)
Court of Justice of the European Union, judgment C-636/18, Commission v France: France has failed to fulfil its obligations under Directive 2008/50/EC by systematically and persistently exceeding the annual limit value for nitrogen dioxide since 1 January 2010 in twelve agglomerations and zones (and the hourly limit value in Paris and Lyon). (Cour de justice de l'Union européenne, 24 October 2019)
Conseil d'État (Assembly), decision no. 428409: finding that the measures remain insufficient in 8 zones, it imposes on the State a penalty payment of 10 million euros per half-year of delay if the 2017 decision is not implemented within six months. (Conseil d'État, 10 July 2020)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 427301, Commune de Grande-Synthe: it finds the application admissible and asks the Government to justify, within three months, that its refusal to take additional measures is compatible with the target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% between 1990 and 2030. (Conseil d'État, 19 November 2020)
Paris Administrative Court, judgment no. 1904967-1904968-1904972-1904976 (« Affaire du siècle »): it recognises ecological damage linked to climate change, holds that the State's partial failure to act engages its liability, orders the State to pay one euro to each of the four associations and orders further investigation. (Tribunal administratif de Paris, 3 February 2021)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 427301, Commune de Grande-Synthe: it annuls the Government's implicit refusal and orders it to take, before 31 March 2022, all appropriate measures to bend the curve of greenhouse gas emissions. (Conseil d'État, 1 July 2021)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 428409: it settles the penalty payment for the first half of 2021 and orders the State to pay 10 million euros, divided between Les Amis de la Terre (€100,000), Ademe, Cerema, Anses, Ineris and four air quality monitoring associations. (Conseil d'État, 4 August 2021)
Paris Administrative Court, « Affaire du siècle »: it orders the State to repair the ecological damage up to 15 Mt CO2eq (the uncompensated share of the overshoot of the first carbon budget, 2015-2018) by 31 December 2022 at the latest, without a penalty payment. (Tribunal administratif de Paris, 14 October 2021)
Court of Justice of the European Union, judgment C-286/21, Commission v France: France has failed to fulfil its obligations by systematically and persistently exceeding the daily limit value for PM10 particles in Paris (2005 to 2019) and in Martinique/Fort-de-France (2005 to 2016, except 2008). (Cour de justice de l'Union européenne (texte sur EUR-Lex), 28 April 2022)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 428409: it orders the State to pay two penalty payments of 10 million euros, i.e. 20 million euros for the period from July 2021 to July 2022, as nitrogen dioxide thresholds were still being exceeded, notably in Paris, Lyon and Marseille. (Conseil d'État, 17 October 2022)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 467982, Commune de Grande-Synthe: it orders the Prime Minister to take additional measures before 30 June 2024 and to produce progress reports as at 31 December 2023 and then 30 June 2024; it rejects the claims seeking a penalty payment. (Conseil d'État, 10 May 2023)
Paris Administrative Court, judgment no. 2200534/4-1: it recognises ecological damage linked to the contamination of water and soil by plant protection products, finds two faults on the part of the State (failure to meet the targets for reducing their use and the obligation to protect groundwater) and orders it to repair the damage by 30 June 2024. (Tribunal administratif de Paris, 29 June 2023)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 428409: it holds that the 2017 decision has been implemented for fine particles and for nitrogen dioxide outside Paris and Lyon, and orders the State to pay two reduced penalty payments of 5 million euros (10 million euros) for the period from July 2022 to July 2023. (Conseil d'État, 24 November 2023)
Paris Administrative Court, judgment no. 2321828/4-1 (« Affaire du siècle », enforcement): it considers the repair of the ecological damage « tardive mais désormais complète » [“late but now complete”] and rejects the associations' enforcement applications. (Tribunal administratif de Paris, 22 December 2023)
Publication of the Écophyto 2030 strategy, which adopts the HRI1 indicator and aims for a 50% reduction in the use and risks of plant protection products by 2030 compared with 2011-2013. (Ministère de l'Agriculture, 9 September 2026)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 428409: it holds that the decision of 12 July 2017 on air quality has been fully implemented and rules that there is no need to settle the penalty payment again (end of the penalty payment). (Conseil d'État, 25 April 2025)
Conseil d'État, decision no. 467982, Commune de Grande-Synthe: it holds that the decisions of 1 July 2021 and 10 May 2023 have been fully implemented and closes the litigation, specifying that it is not ruling on the European target of −55% adopted in 2023. (Conseil d'État, 24 October 2025)
Number of new dwellings started during the year, all types (detached, grouped, multi-unit, residences), estimated by actual date by the SDES from the Sitadel planning permission database, France excluding Mayotte.
Break in series (2025). September 2025: switch from the DR+ actual-date estimation method (used from 2020 to July 2025) to the DR++ method (machine learning); the series released in September 2026 is produced with DR++.
Break in series (2026). March 2026: production based on Sitadel3 instead of Sitadel2; according to the SDES, « ce nouveau dispositif a conduit à réviser légèrement les données publiées » [“this new system led to a slight revision of the published data”].
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SDES (ministère de la Transition écologique), « Logements autorisés et commencés, nombre et surfaces, séries mensuelles (données estimées) — Données mensuelles nationales - Logements », 29 September 2026.
Annual value = sum of the 12 published raw monthly values, divided by 1,000; « recent » = total of the 12 months from September 2025 to August 2026 (300,506 dwellings), same calculation. SDES states that each month only 45 to 50% of housing starts are recorded in Sitadel: the latest months and years are estimated and subject to revision. The national file covers France excluding Mayotte.
Number of homicide victims recorded by the national police and gendarmerie, including terrorist attacks; according to the SSMSI, « les homicides incluent les coups et blessures volontaires suivis de mort » [“homicides include intentional assault resulting in death”]. These are recorded offences: the SSMSI points out that « de nombreuses personnes ne portent pas plainte, ce qui tend à sous-estimer l'ampleur de la délinquance à partir des infractions enregistrées par la police et la gendarmerie nationales » [“many people do not file a complaint, which tends to underestimate the extent of crime based on offences recorded by the national police and gendarmerie”].
Break in series (2016-2021). New process for producing the statistical databases from 2022: the years 2016 to 2021 were re-extracted in April 2022, with a level of reclassification that is not homogeneous across years; according to the SSMSI, this effect could only be neutralised for homicides in 2020 and 2021 (Interstats Méthode No. 26).
Break in series (2016-2021). The national number of homicides is estimated « en anticipant les effets de l'expertise manuelle réalisée par le SSMSI pour l'année la plus récente et en appliquant une correction pour les années antérieures à 2022 » [“by anticipating the effects of the manual review carried out by the SSMSI for the most recent year and applying a correction for the years before 2022”] (2025 atlas).
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SSMSI (ministère de l'Intérieur), « Service statistique ministériel de la sécurité intérieure – Base des séries chronologiques (serieschrono-datagouv.csv) », 15 September 2026.
Excluding terrorist attacks, the same database gives 821 victims in 2016 and 973 in 2025. The figure from the first snapshot of January 2026 (982 victims in 2025) has been replaced by the consolidated value of summer 2026 (975).
Number of victims of physical violence (within and outside the family, all ages) recorded by the national police and gendarmerie, excluding homicides. Since July 2025 this indicator has replaced the one for « coups et blessures volontaires sur personnes de 15 ans ou plus » [“intentional assault on persons aged 15 or over”]. Recorded offences: according to the SSMSI, « la propension à déposer plainte a un impact sur le niveau de la délinquance enregistrée » [“the propensity to file a complaint has an impact on the level of recorded crime”].
Break in series (2016-2024). July 2025: overhaul of the indicator; « le suivi des victimes de violences physiques enregistrées a été révisé sur la période 2016-2024 pour tenir compte de l'ensemble de ces violences, en particulier celles envers les mineurs » [“the monitoring of recorded victims of physical violence was revised over the 2016-2024 period to take account of all such violence, in particular violence against minors”]; the published series is consistent over 2016-2025 under the new definition.
Break in series (2016-2021). 2016-2021 data re-extracted in April 2022 (new production process): level of reclassification not homogeneous across years according to the SSMSI.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SSMSI (ministère de l'Intérieur), « Service statistique ministériel de la sécurité intérieure – Base des séries chronologiques (serieschrono-datagouv.csv) », 15 September 2026.
The requested indicator « coups et blessures volontaires sur personnes de 15 ans ou plus » [“intentional assault and battery on persons aged 15 or over”] is no longer published by the SSMSI; this indicator replaces it. The published total equals the sum of physical violence within the family (256,681 in 2025) and outside the family (215,728 in 2025) in the regional database.
Number of victims of sexual violence (rape, attempted rape and other sexual assaults and offences) recorded by the national police and gendarmerie, all locations. Recorded offences: according to the SSMSI, based on the Cadre de vie et sécurité surveys, « en moyenne sur la période 2011-2018 seules 12 % des victimes de violences sexuelles hors ménage portent plainte, contre 74 % pour les victimes de cambriolages » [“on average over the 2011-2018 period only 12% of victims of sexual violence outside the household file a complaint, compared with 74% of burglary victims”].
Break in series (2016-2021). 2016-2021 data re-extracted in April 2022 (new production process): level of reclassification not homogeneous across years according to the SSMSI.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SSMSI (ministère de l'Intérieur), « Service statistique ministériel de la sécurité intérieure – Base des séries chronologiques (serieschrono-datagouv.csv) », 15 September 2026.
The time-series database rounds this indicator to the nearest hundred; the regional database gives 51,913 victims in 2016 and 132,143 in 2025 (place where the offence was committed). Sexual violence is counted in the year it is recorded, which may be far removed from the year of the events.
Number of burglaries and attempted burglaries of dwellings (main and second homes) recorded by the national police and gendarmerie. Recorded offences, which depend on complaints being filed: according to the SSMSI, 74% of burglary victims file a complaint (Cadre de vie et sécurité surveys, 2011-2018 average).
Break in series (2016-2021). 2016-2021 data re-extracted in April 2022 (new production process): level of reclassification not homogeneous across years according to the SSMSI.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: SSMSI (ministère de l'Intérieur), « Service statistique ministériel de la sécurité intérieure – Base des séries chronologiques (serieschrono-datagouv.csv) », 15 September 2026.
The time-series database rounds this indicator to the nearest hundred; the regional database gives 248,887 in 2016 and 211,596 in 2025.
2016France: 1.92 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.57 children per woman2017France: 1.89 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.56 children per woman2018France: 1.87 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.54 children per woman2019France: 1.86 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.53 children per woman2020France: 1.82 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.51 children per woman2021France: 1.82 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.53 children per woman2022France: 1.78 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.46 children per woman2023France: 1.65 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.38 children per woman2024France: 1.61 children per womanEuropean Union (27 countries): 1.34 children per woman2025France: 1.56 children per woman
201620222025
European Union (27 countries): 1.57 children per woman in 2016, 1.34 children per woman in 2024 (−0.23 children per woman)
Sum of the age-specific fertility rates observed in a given year: the number of children a woman would have over her lifetime if that year's rates remained unchanged. Whole of France.
Sources, notes and valuesSource: INSEE, « Bilan démographique 2025 – Tableaux rétrospectifs « Naissances, natalité et fécondité », tableau 3 « Indicateur conjoncturel de fécondité des femmes et âge conjoncturel moyen à l'accouchement » », 13 January 2026; Eurostat (European Union (27 countries)).
Values published by INSEE per 100 women, divided by 100. The years 2023 to 2025 are provisional (results as at end-2025).
European Union (27 countries): Eurostat, « Indicateurs de fécondité (demo_find) », published on 30 September 2026, series demo_find (indic_de=TOTFERRT, geo=EU27_2020) ; 2018-2024 estimés et provisoires (drapeaux e, p), ruptures signalées en 2017, 2019, 2020 et 2022 (drapeau b).